Dating the Book of Revelation

[job 1:21]

BEFORE
JERUSALEM
FELL
Other books by Kenneth L. Gentry, Jr., Th.D.
The Christian Case Agaimt Abortion, 1982
Th Christian and Alcoholic Beoerages, 1986
The Owi.smatic Gij of Prophev: A Reformed Ana@sis, 1986
Tb Beast of Rmelation, 1989
BEFORE
JERUSALEM
FELL
Dating the Book of Revelation
An Exegetical and Historical Argument
@r a Pre-A.D. 70 Composition
Kenneth L. Gentry, Jr., Th.D.
Institute for Christian Economics
Tyler, Texas
Copyright 01989 by Kenneth L. Gentry, Jr., Th.D.
All rights reserved. No part of this publication maybe reproduced, stored
in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, except
for brief quotations in critical reviews or articles, without the prior, written
permission of the publisher. For information, address Dominion Press,
Publishers, Post Office Box 8204, Fort Worth, Texas 76124.
Unless otherwise noted, Scripture references are taken tl-om the New
American Standard Bible, G 1960, 1962, 1963, 1968, 1971, 1972, 1973,
1975, 1977 by The Lockman Foundation. Used by permission.
The following publishers have generously given permission to use extended
quotations from copyrighted works:
l Redating the New Testanwzt, by John A. T. Robinson 'SCM Press Ltd.
1976. Published in the U.S.A. by The Westminster Press. Reprinted and
used by permission.
l 771z Book of Revelation, by Robert Mounce 01977 by Wm. B. Eerdmans
Publishing Co. Published in the U.S.A. by Wm. B. Eerdmans. Reprinted
and used by permission.
l ThE Revelata"on of St. John, by Leon Morris Q 1969 by The Tyndale Press.
Published in the U.S.A. by Wm. B. Eerdmans. Reprinted and used by
permission.
l T/w Old Testament Pseua@igrapha, by James H. Charlesworth. Copyright
G 1983, 1985 by James H. Charlesworth. Reprinted by permission of
Doubleday, a division of Bantam, Doubleday, Dell Publishing Group,
Inc.
l New Testamt Histq, by F. F. Bruce. Copyright 01969 by F. F. Bruce.
Reprinted by permission of Doubleday, a division of Bantam, Doubleday,
Dell Publishing Group, Inc.
" Tb Birth of the New i%tament by C. F. D. Moule. Copyright Q 1981 by
Charles Francis Digby Moule. Reprinted by permission of Harper &
Row, Publishers, Inc.
Published by the Institute for Christian Economics
Distributed by Dominion Press, Fort Worth, Texas
~fiesetting @ Nhung Pham Nguyen
Printed in the United States of America
ISBN 0-930464-20-6
Dedicated to
Dr. Greg L. Bahnsen
who first startled me with his commitment
to and then convinced me of
the early date of Revelation
Testimonials Regarding
The Dating of Revekdion
66Here is a book somM of us have been awaiting for years! Now that it 5 here
we can rejoue. Mr. Genty convim"ng~ demonstrates the fut the book of Revelation
was written, as it in so many ways declares, prior to the destruction of Jem.salem in
A.D. 70. It should receive a wide reading and ought to rattle many windows.99
–Jay E. Adams, Ph. D.,
Author of The Time Is at Hand and Professor,
Westminster Theological Seminary West,
Escondido, California.
66A thorough and outstanding statement of the case for the ear~ dati of Revelation.
The book makes one aware of the m"dence j?om within the book and from ear~
church sources, and surveys the arguments of Nt-w Testament scholars of this century and
previous centuries conarn.ing the questwn. No stone is l~t unturned to resolve the
question.99
– George W. Knight III, Th.D.,
Professor of New Testament,
Covenant Theological Seminary,
St. Louis, Missouri.
66 The REV. Kennzth Gentry has presented a power=l and conviming case for a
pre-A.D. 70 writing cfthe book of Revelation. He has demonstrated this jom both the
internal and extanal witnesses. Hopeji@ this dissertation will be published and wide~
read within Christian circles.99
– W. Gary Crampton, Th.D., Ph. D.,
Professor of Theology,
Whitefield Theological Seminary,
Lakeland, Florida.
661t would be an unhappy mistake to assume this work is a tedious, technical
treatrmmt of the date of Revelation. Th ahting questwn affects the interpretation of
many passages. Genty3 thorough treatment is thus not on~ valuable, but it leads the
reader through substantive passages of Rmelation with illuminating insights. 99
– Carl W. Bogue, Th.D.,
Visiting Professor of Theology,
WhitefieId Theological Seminary,
Lakeland, Florida.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Publisher's Preface by Gary North . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... ix
Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...xvii
PART I: PRELIMINARY CONSIDERATIONS
l. Revelation Studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...3
2. The Approach to the Question of Dating . . . . . . . . 17
PART II: THE EXTERNAL EVIDENCE
3. Introduction to the External Evidence . . . . . . . . . 41
4. Irenaeus, Bishop of Lyons. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
5. Clement of Alexandria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...68
6. Additional External Witnesses . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
PART III: THE INTERNAL EVIDENCE
7. The Role of Internal Evidence . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
8. The Theme of Revelation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
9. The Temporal Expectation of the Author . . . . . . . . 133
10. The Identity of the Sixth King . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
11. The Contemporary Integrity of the Temple . . . . . . . 165
12. The Role of Nero Caesar.. . . . . . . . . . . . ...193
13. The Role of Jewish Christianity . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220
14. The Looming Jewish War... . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
PART IV: ALLEGED DOMITIANIC EVIDENCES EXAMINED
15. Introduction to Domitianic Evidences . . . . . . . . . . 259
16. The Role of Emperor Worship . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261
17. The Persecution of Christianity . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285
18. The Nero Redivivus Myth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...300
19. The Condition of the Seven Churches . . . . . . . . . . 318
vii
. . .
VII1 BEFORE JERUSALEM FELL
PART V: CONCLUSION
20. Concluding Remarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...333
Appendix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...339
SELECT BIBLIOGRAPHY
Select Bibliography I: Modern Writings . . . . . . . . . . . . 355
Select Bibliography II: Ancient Writings . . . . . . . . . . . . 374
Ancient Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...375
INDICES
Scripture Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...379
Modern Authors Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...387
Ancient Authors Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...395
Subject Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...397
PUBLISHER'S PREFACE
by Gary North
I have several reasons for wanting to see this book in print. The
first reason is my technical interest in the methods of dating primary
source documents on the basis of their internal evidence and external
evidence from other sources. The accurate dating of historical documents
is crucial to our knowledge of the events of any period of
history. If we do not date our primary source documents accurately,
we cannot expect to gain an accurate understanding of history. There
have been too many ill-fated attempts to compare "contemporary"
events in different ancient societies based on inaccurate chronologies.
The pieces of the chronological jigsaw puzzle do not match, and
therefore must be damaged by the historian in order to jam them
together. My theory of chronology is simple: "If we don't know when
something happened, we don't know how or why it happened."
The Bible is self-consciously an historical book. More than any
other foundational religious text in the man's history, it claims to be
an historical book. Thus, Christians need to treat it as the historical
document it claims to be. Modern scholarship, even Christian scholarship,
has too often refused to do this, especially with regard to the
Old Testament. For example, scholars prefer to accept as chronological
standards the various attempted modern reconstructions of the
historical texts of the non-historically minded Egyptians. They then
rewrite the events of Scripture, especially the events of the Exodus,
in terms of modern interpretations of pagan Egyptian texts. 1
My second reason for publishing this book is that as a Bible
student, I want to know when a biblical book or epistle was written,
so that I can better understand the ethical message of the document.
1, Gary North, Moses and Pharaoh: Dommton Relip"on vs. Power Relig"on (Tyler, Texas:
Institute for Christian Economics, 1985), Appendix A: "The Reconstruction of Biblical
Chronology."
ix
x BEFORE JERUSALEM FELL
Ifwedonot understand the historical context ("withtext"), we will
have trouble understanding the text itself. If we fail to understand
both text and context, we risk misapplying the text's message in our
lives. In the case of no other book of the New Testament has an error
in dating led to more misinterpretations and misapplications than the
Book of Revelation.
Third, there is no doubt that the intellectual attack on the
integrity of the Bible's manuscripts has been the most important
single strategy of covenant-breaking modern Bible scholars.2 I refer
here to the academic specialty known as higher criticism of the
Bible.3 A large part of this attack involves the dating of the Bible's
original texts. The presupposition of all higher critics of the Bible is
that the biblical texts, especially the prophetic texts, could not possibly
have been written at the time that the texts insist that they were
written. To admit that they were written when the texts say that they
were written would be to admit that- mortals, under the inspiration
of the Holy Spirit, can accurately predict the iiture. This would
destroy the most cherished assumption of the humanist: the sovereignty
of man. If this ability to forecast the future actually exists, the
future is not only known to the revealer, it is foreordained by something
beyond man's power to alter. This points clearly to the absolute
sovereignty of God, and the humanist rejects this doctrine with all
his heart.4
Prophecy Fulfilled
In 1987, my publishing company, Dominion Press, published
David Chilton's book, Th Days of V2ngeance: An Exposition of the Book
2. Writes Old Testament theologian Walter Kaise~ "For many it is too much to
assume that there is consistency within one book or even a series of books alleged to
have been written by the same author, for many contend that various forms of literary
criticism have suggested composite documents often traditionally posing under one single
author. This argument, more than any other argument in the last two hundred years,
has been responsible for cutting the main nerve of the case for the unity and authority
of the biblical message." Walter Kaiser, Jr., 7bwurd Old Testarnmd Ethics (Grand Rapids,
Michigan: Zondervan Academie, 1983), p. 26.
3. See Oswald T. Allis, The Fiw lloob of Mows (2nd cd.; Phillipsburg, New Jersey:
presbyterian & Reformed, 1949); Allis, Thz Old Testanwzt: Zt.s Claim.r and Its CritiJs
(Nutley, New Jersey: Presbyterian & Reformed, 1972).
4. Very few Arminians ("free-will Christians") discuss the topic of biblical prophecy
in terms of God's absolute sovereignty. They may enjoy discussing Bible prophecy; they
do not enjoy discussing the predestinarian implications of Bible prophecy.
Publish/s Preface xi
of Revelation. In writing this book, Chilton adopted Ray Sutton's
summary of the Bible's five-point covenant model.5 Days of Vengeame
shows that John's Apocalypse is structured in terms of this same
five-point model.6 Chilton's book was the first comprehensive verification
of Sutton's thesis based on a New Testament book.7 Days of
Vengeame discusses the Book of Revelation in terms of these themes:
As God's covenant lawsuit against Israel
AS a worship liturgy of the church
As a prophecy of the fdl ofJerusalem
As a rejection of political religion (Rome)
As a prediction of Christian dominion in history
The individual theses of his book were not in themselves revolutionary,
but taken as a unit, they were. The book presents a new way of
reading this difficult New Testament text.
Preterism Revived
If Chilton's commentary is correct, the overwhelming majority
of the eschatological events prophesied in the Book of Revelation
have already been fulfilled. This interpretation of New Testament
prophecy has long been known as firetetim, meaning "from the past
tense," i.e., the preterit tense: over and done with. It should therefore
not be surprising to discover that defenders of both premillennialism
and amillennialism are exceedingly unhappy with Chilton's book.
The premillennialist are unhappy with the book because it shows
that the apocalyptic New Testament language of God's visible judg-
5. Ray R. Sutton, That You May Prosper: Dominion By Covmant (Tyler, Texas: Institute
for Christian Economics, 1987).
6. The implications of Sutton's discovery are shattering for dispensationalism. If the
Old Testament covenants were all structured in terms of a single five-point model, and
if this same model appears in many New Testament texts, even to the extent of
structuring whole books or- epistles, then the case for a radica3 discontinuity between the
Old Testament and the New Testament collapses. As a graduate of Dallas Theological
Seminary, Sutton fully understands the threat of his thesis for dispensationalism. So do
dispensational authors H. Wayne House and Thomas D. Ice, which is why they refused
to discuss Sutton's thesis in their attack on Christian Reconstructionism. They buried
their brief summary of the five-point model in their annotated biblioqaphy (seldom
read), and then failed to rder to this in the book's index. See House and Ice, Dominion
Thsology: Bkssing or Cume? (Portland, Oregon: Multnomah Press, 1988), pp. 438-39.
7, It was actually published a few months before Sutton's book, but Sutton had
discussed his thesis in detail with Chilton while Chilton was writing his book.
xii BEFORE JERUSALEM FELL
ments was fulfilled in A.D. 70. There are therefore no major eschatological
discontinuities ahead of us except the conversion of the Jews
(Rem. 11) and the final judgment (Rev. 20). Therefore, neither the
church nor living Christians will be delivered from this world until
the final judgment. The so-called Rapture will come only at the end
of history. There is no "great escape" ahead. This interpretation of
Bible prophecy especially appalls dispensational premillennialists.
They want their great escape.8
The amillennialists are unhappy with the book for a different
reason. They affkm preterism's view of the future's continuity — on
this point, they stand with the preterists against premillennialism – but
they reject the postmillennial optimism of Chilton's book. If preterism
is true, then most of the prophesied negative sanctions in history
are over. Covenant theology teaches that there are positive and
negative sanctions in history. If the prophesied (i.e., inevitable) negative
sanctions are behind us, then the church has no legitimate
eschatological reason not to expect God's positive sanctions in history
in response to the preaching of the gospel. There is no legitimate
eschatological reason not to affirm the possibility of the progressive
sanctification of individual Christians and the institutions that they
influence or legally control. But amillennialism has always preached
a continuity of external defeat for the church and for the gospel
generally. The victories of Christianity are said to be limited to the
hearts of converts to Christianity, their families, and a progressively
besieged institutional church. Amillennialism's continuity is the continuity
of the prayer group in a concentration camp; worse: a sentence
with no possibility of parole.g
8. Dave Hunt, Whatever Happerzzd to Heaven? (Eugene, Oregon: Harvest House, 1988).
9. I realize that certain defenders of amillennialism like to refer to themselves as
"optimistic amillennialists. " I had not heard this term bdore R. J. Rushdoony began to
publish his postmillennial works. I think the postmillennialists' legitimate monopolization
of the vision of earthly eschatological optimism has embarrassed their opponents.
What must be understood fmm the beginning is that there has never been so much as
an article outlining what this optimistic amillennial theology would look like, let alone a
systematic theology. There has been no published Protestant amillennial theologian in
four centuries who has presented anything but a pessimistic view of the fhture with
respect to the inevitable cultuml triumph of unbeliefl It is my suspicion that any
. .
"optlmlstlc amillennial" system would simply be a variety of postmillennialism. I believe
that the term "optimistic amillennialist" refers to a postmillennialist who for employment
constraints or time constmints – it takes time to rethink one's theology – prefers not
to use the word "postmillennial" to describe his eschatology.
Publisher's Preface
. . .
X111
Postmillennialism's earthly eschatological optimism necessarily
places great responsibility on Christians to apply the Bible to every
area of life. It is my strongly held opinion that this has been the great
resistance factor in the acceptance of the Christian Reconstructionist
position. It is very dificult to "sell" responsibility, especially broad
new responsibility. I sense that premillennialist and amillennialists
are generally disturbed by the personal and ecclesiastical implications
of this enormous moral and cultural burden. Postmillennialism's
view of the future makes Christians morally responsible before
God for discovering and applying a Bible-based judicial and ethical
blueprint – a blueprint that should and eventually will govern the
institutions of this world. lrThis means that the world is required by
God to be run in terms of His revealed law. It also means that God
will positively bless societies and institutions in terms of their faithfulness
to His revealed law. 11 This is a crucial and long-neglected aspect
of the biblical doctrine of sanctification — the progressive sanctification
of institutions in history – which neither the premillennialists
nor the amillennialists are willing to accept.
Th Quick Fix of'%
One of the first accusations against Days of Vengeance – and surely
the easiest one to make without actually having to read the book – was
that the Book of Revelation could not possibly have been what
Chilton says it was, namely, a prediction of the fall of Jerusalem.
Jerusalem fell in A.D. 70; the Book of Revelation, we are assured,
was written in A.D. 96. Thus, the critics charge, the cornerstone of
Chilton's thesis is defective.
This criticism would be unquestionably correct i~ and only i~ the
Book of Revelation was written after A.D. 70. If the book was written
prior to A.D. 70, Chilton's thesis is not automatically secured, but if
Revelation was written after A.D. 70, then Chilton's thesis would
have to be drastically modified. Critics noted that Chilton's text does
not devote a great deal of space defending a pre-A.D. 70 date. His
book therefore appears vulnerable.
10. In 1986 and 1987, Dominion Press published a ten-volume set, the Biblical
Blueprints Series. It was not well-received by the academic Christian world or the
evangelical-fundamentalist community.
11. Gary North, Dominion rm.d Common Grme: T?u Biblical Basis of Progress (Tyler, Texas:
Institute for Christian Economics, 1987).
xiv BEFORE JERUSALEM FELL
Baiting the Hook
This vulnerability was admitted in print by Rev. Gentry in an
early review of Chilton's book. Like a skilled fisherman baiting his
hook with a bright, shining fly, Rev. Gentry wrote: "Chilton only
gives four superfkially argued pages in defense of what is perhaps the
most crucial matter for consistent preterism: the pre-A.D. 70 date for
the composition of Revelation." 12 The temptation to take the bait
was just too great for a pair of dispensationalists: H. Wayne House
of Dallas Theological Seminary and Thomas D. Ice, a pastor. They
devoted a dozen pages of their anti-Reconstructionist book to the
question of the date of Revelation. 13 They insisted that the Book of
Revelation had to have been written after A.D. 70. Little did they
know that Rev. Gentry had already completed the bulk of his doctoral
dissertation on the dating of Revelation. Like fish grabbing a
baited hook, the two authors bit hard. This hook is now embedded
in their collective jaw. With Before Jwalem Fell, Dr. Gentry now reels
them in.
Lest I be perceived as indicating that only premillennial dispensationalists
have lost a favorite and easy-to-invoke excuse for not
taking Chilton's pretenst thesis seriously, let me also say that historic
premillennialists and amillennialists are equally inclined to dismiss
preterism with the same cavalier attitude. The A.D. 96 tradition has
always been convenient for this purpose. One wonders if eschatological
concerns may have been the original reason for the invention of
the A.D. 96 hypothesis. It has heretofore been an inexpensive way
to justifi a refusal to read any detailed and carefully argued alternative
interpretation of this difficult New Testament book.
Conclusion
I regard this monograph as one more nail in the cofiin of
all non-pretenst views of the Book of Revelation, or at least a
nail-remover in what non-preterists had long believed was the
final nail in preterism's cofh. The news of pretensm's death, like
Alva J. McClain's announcement of postmillennialism's death,
was premature. 14 This book, along with Gentry's shorter book,
12. Counsel ~Chakedon (June 1987), p. 10.
13. House and Ice, Dominwn 771Ao~, pp. 249-60.
14. Alva J. McClain, "Premillennialism as a Philosophy of History," in W. Culbertson
Publisher's Preface xv
Th Beret of Revelation,~5 reveals that preterism is alive and well. It is
now the responsibility of non-preterist theologians to answer Dr.
Gentry, not the other way around. If they fail to respond with the
same precision and wealth of detail provided in Before Jerusalem Fell,
then the preterist position will eventually become dominant. The old
rule is true: "You can't beat something with nothing." The critics
had better not rest content in confining their remarks to three-page
reviews in their in-house (and seldom read) scholarly journals.
and H. B. Centz (eds.), Understanding th Times (Grand Rapids, Michigan: Zondewan,
1956), p. 22.
15. Tyler, Texas: Institute for Christian Economics, 1989.
PREFACE
The present volume represents more than two years' labor while
engaged in studies in the doctoral program of Whitefield Theological
Seminary of Lakeland, Florida. The topic was undertaken under the
able counsel and with the much needed and very gracious encouragement
of the writer's dissertational advisors at Whitefield Seminary –
Rev. W. Gary Crampton, Th.D., Ph. D.; Rev. Daniel C. Coleman,
Ph. D.; and Rev. Carl W. Bogue, Jr., Th.D. – and of the seminary's
president, Rev. Kenneth G. Talbot, Ph.D.
In addition to their project-long assistance, the manuscript was
also critically read by three scholars outside of the Whitefield faculty:
one an early date advocate, Rev. Jay E. Adams, Ph. D., of Westminster
Theological Seminary West, and the others late date advocates,
Rev. C. Gregg Singer, Ph. D., of Greenville Presbyterian Theological
Seminary, and Rev. George W. Knight III, Th.D., of Covenant
Theological Seminary. Their willingness to share their scholarly
expertise despite their own time pressures is deeply appreciated.
Still further I must mention Gary North, Ph.D., of the Institute
for Christian Economics, who, as an avid early date advocate, was
willing to publish this manuscript in its present form. His additional
insights and suggestions have also been received with much benefit.
In addition I would like to mention four others who assisted me
in the preparation of the manuscript. Mr. Vance A. Burns of Houston,
Texas, graciously employed his considerable technical computer
competence in printing the original dissertation for final presentation,
despite his unexpected medical difficulties. My daughter, Amanda
Gentry, spent many hours helping me double check quotations for
accuracy — hours she could have more enjoyably spent playing tennis.
Mr. Bob Nance generously assisted me in the final wordprocessing
preparation of the manuscript for presentation to the
publisher, as well as preparing some of the indices (despite his preparations
for his upcoming wedding to Lise Garrison). Mr. James
xvii
I
. . . Xvlll BEFORE JERUSALEM FELL
B. Jordan, long-time ftiend, is also to be thanked for his careful
editing of the final manuscript for publication.
Each of these is to be thanked with deep appreciation for the
sharing of their valuable time and for encouraging me in this project.
Without their encouragement the undertaking would have been immensely
more difficult and the potential value of my labor much
diminished. Of course, the end product is the present writer's – he
alone is responsible for any deficiencies and inadequacies that may
be discovered within.
Although the goal of the dissertational inquiry was quite narrow
— to ascertain the general time-frame of the composition of one
book in the New Testament – the scope of the research demanded
for a careful demonstration of the goal proved to be quite broad.
This was so for two reasons.
In the first place, the majority of current scholarship accepts a
late date for Revelation – a date of around A.D. 95 – which this
work seeks to refute. Consequently, there was a vast array of more
readily available scholarly material for the opposite position. Thus,
the establishment of our case was confronted with a sizeable range
of material for the contrary conclusion, which demanded sorting and
scrutinizing.
In addition, by the very nature of the case the determination of
the date of Revelation's composition is quite a complex affair. It
requires engaging in an exegesis of critical passages, a diligent survey
of the voluminous scholarly literature on Revelation, an inquiry into
the apocalyptic literature of the era, and a laborious search through
the writings of both the early church fathens and the pagan Roman
historians. It is hoped that the profusion of research contained within
will not be without beneficial effect.
Nevertheless, despite the extensive and involved nature of the
research presentation, it is the conviction of the present writer that
the case for Revelation's early dating is clear and compelling. The
extensive research gathered in the establishment of this date was not
sought for in a strained effort to create a case where there was none.
On the contrary, much of the material was employed with the
intention of demonstrating the precariousness of the contrary opinion.
Of course, whether or not the rebuttal to the majority opinion
and the positive establishment of the minority position are adequate
to the task is now left ,to biblical scholarship to assess.
Preface xix
A case for the early dating of Revelation is herewith humbly
presented to the world of biblical scholarship. May God be pleased
with our efforts to discern the truths of His holy and infallible Word.
Rev. Kenneth L. Gentry, Jr., Th.D.
Reedy River Presbyterian Church
Greenville, South Carolina
November 22, 1988
PART 1
PRELIMINARY
CONSIDERATIONS
1
REVEI.ATION STUDIES
Interest in Revelation
At once arresting and bewildering the reader, the vivid imagery
and dramatic message of Revelation have long captivated the attention
of Christendom. Although the literary genre of which it is
considered to be a distinctive representative (i .e., "apocalyptic" ) 1 was
familiar to the ancients of the first century of our era, Revelation is,
nevertheless, set apart from its literary milieu at two levels. On the
human level, it is widely heralded as "the most perfect of apocalypses,"
and "the climax in style of an age of literary effort ."2 On the
divine level, it is nothing less than inspired revelation from God.
1. The debate as to whether or not Revelation ought to be classed as apocalyptic
literature will not be engaged here. Probably it is not properly "apocalyptic," in the
narrow sense in which this word is understood by modern scholars. Rather, we prefer
"prophetic." For an excellent discussion of the significant differences, see David Hill, New
Testament Profhzy (Atlanta John Knox, 1979), chap. 3: "The Book of Revelation as
Christian Prophecy." See further discussion in G. Von Rad, T?uolo.g of&h Old Testament,
vol. 2 (Eng. trans.: Edinburgh: Oliver and Boyd, 1965); P. Vilhouer, "Apocalyptic," in
R. M. Wilson, cd., New Testament Apoaypha, vol. 2 (Eng. trans.: London: Lutterworth,
1965); and Werner Georg Kiimmel, Introduchon to thz Ntzo Testament, 17th cd., trans.
Howard Clark Kee (Nashville, TN: Abingdon, 1973), pp. 457ff. Additional discussion
and documentation can be found in Barclay Newman, "The Fallacy of the Domitian
Hypothesis. Critique of the Irenaeus Source as a Witness for the Contemporary-
Historical Approach to the Interpretation of the Apocalypse," New Te$tament Studies 10
(1963-64):134, n. 4.
2. Vacher Burch, Anthropolo~ and the Apoca@e (London: Macmillan, 1939), p. 11.
James Moffatt speaks of it thus: Revelation "rises above its class quantum lenkr solent inter
uibuma aspresst. When it is approached through the tangled underwoods of
apocalyptic wfitings in general, with their frigid speculations upon cosmic details, their
wearisome and fantastic calculations, their tasteless and repulsive elements, and the
turgid rhetoric which frequently submerges their really fine conceptions, the Apocalypse
of John reveals itself as a superior plant" (James Moffatt, T/u Revelation of St. John the
Diuine, in W. R. Nicoll, cd., Englishman's Greek Testament, vol. 5 Grand Rapids: Eerdmans,
rep. 1980, pp. 295-296).
3
4 BEFORE JERUSALEM FELL
Thus, both in terms of its literary genius and its divine inspiration
and message, Revelation merits its fascinating captivation of the
mind.
Ancient! h.?terest
Consequently, it is not surprising that "neglect did not characterize
the earliest history of the book."3 Indeed, its transmission history
clearly attests its wide circulation in early times.4 New Testament
historians, commentators, and textual critics alike have long noted
that "this book is one of the best attested of early times."5
The intensity of ancient interest in Revelation is evidenced by the
startling fact that "perhaps more than any other book in the New
Testament, the Apocalypse enjoyed wide distribution and early recognition.
"G The prince of evangelical commentators on Revelation,
Henry Barclay Swete, even observed in this regard: "The Apocalypse
is well-worked ground. It would not be difficult to construct a commentary
which should be simply a catena of patristic and medieval
expositions. " ~ Nevertheless, it should be noted that in its earliest
history, despite both its impressive distribution and recognition "no
book in the New Testament with so good a record was so long in
gaining general acceptance."s Debate over Revelation in the post-
Apostolic era raged not only over its interpretation (it does still
today!), but over its very canonicity, as well. An excellent, brief
survey of its early canon history can be found in Guthrie's classic New
Testament Introduction,g the standard introduction among conservative
Bible students. A more comprehensive treatment of the matter – also
from a conservative perspective – is contained in Ned B. Stonehouse's
The Apoca~pse in the Ancitmt Church. 10
3. Donald B. Guthrie, New ZLrtarnerzt Introductzorz, 3rd ed. (Downer's Grove, IL:
Inter-Varsity Press, 1970), p. 931.
4. Ibid., p. 932.
5. Walter F. Adeney, A Biblical Introduction, vol. 2: New Testament (London: Methuen,
1911), p. 461.
6. Robert H. Mounce, Tlu Book of Revelatwn. New International Commentary on the
New Testament (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1977), p. 36.
7. Henry Barclay Swete, Commentary on Reoekrtzon (Grand Rapids: Kregel, 1906
1977), p. xii.
8. Ibzd, p. cxvii.
9. Guthrie, Introduction, pp. 931-949.
10. Ned B. Stonehouse, The Apoca@se in thz Arwz"ent Church (Goes, Holland: Oosterbaan
and Le Cointre, 1929), pa.ssim.
Revelation Studies 5
Modern Interest
More directly relevant to the current thesis, however, is the
modern interest in Revelation studies. Interest in Revelation among
Christians is basically of a two-fold nature. On the one hand, it is of
significant spiritual importance to Christians in that it is one book
among the sixty-six that compose the sacred, inspired canon of
Protestant Christianity. As one portion of that inerrant and authoritative
revelation from God, it demands – equally with the remaining
books – the devout attention of the Christian so that the will of God
might be more pefiectly known. Conservative Christendom insists
upon the plenary inspiration of Scripture; a logical (albeit often
overlooked) corollary to plenary inspiration is the "plenary significance"
of Scripture. That is, since all of the books of Scripture are
inspired of God, all are profitable (2 Tim. 3:16-17).11
On the other hand, it is of significant moral and psychological
importance to Christians in that God has created man to be naturally
inquisitive (Prov. 25:2). And especially is man inquisitive about the
future since, even though he is endowed with an immortal soul, he
is a creature enmeshed in time (Eccl. 3:1-11). Furthermore, the future
is an intrinsically moral concern because expectations regarding the
future impact on the priorities and values one holds in the present.12
In that the current popular understanding of Revelation is predominantly
dispensationalist in orientation, Revelation attains a heightened
significance among Christians in regard to its importance for
eschatological study.
11. In this regard M. R. Newbolt in Thz Book of Unveiling (London: SPCK, 1952) has
observed: "The Revelation of St. John the Divine is an immensely important part of
Holy Scripture. It lifts our grasp of the Faith on to a plane which no other book can
reach, setting our life against the background of 'the things that are not seen which are
eterna~. . St. John opens a door into heaven, he also lifts the cover of 'the bottomless
pit'; he reveals both celestial splendors and infernal horrors," From another perspective,
John F. Walvoord, though a dispensationalist, notes the importance of Revelation in his
T/u Revelation of Je.rw Chrirt (Chicago: Moody, 1966, p. 7): "In some sense, the book is the
conclusion to all previous biblical revelation and Iogieally reflects the interpretation of
the rest of the Bible."
12. A few samples from the prevailing dispensationalist viewpoint will serve to
illustrate the potential mgatwe impact of this particular eschatology on cultural and social
involvement. Charles C. Ryrie has written: "This world is not going to get any easier to
live in. Almost unbelievably hard times lie ahead. Indeed, Jesus said that these coming
days will be uniquely terrible. Nothing in all the previous history of the world ean
compare with what lies in store for mankkN (The Lioing End Old Tappan, NJ: Revel,
1976, p. 21). If such is the case, why get involved?
6 BEFORE JERUSALEM FELL
Regarding the present generation, church historian Timothy P.
Webber has noted that the "resurgence of the interest in prophetic
themes is one of the most significant developments in American
religion since the Second World War. " 13 This fact is evidenced
generally in the rising flood of eschatological literature pouring forth
fmm Christian publishers. It is evidenced specifically in that one of
the most widely distributed books of the present era is Hal Lindsey's
multi-million selling T/w Late Great Planet Earth. Lindsey's work has
been translated into no fewer than 31 languages and circulated in
more than 50 nations. 14 While emphasizing Lindsey's role in the
matter, Newsweek magazine reported a few years back that in American
religious circles there is a "Boom in Doom. " 15 Many Christians
believe that our present era is witnessing "The Great Cosmic Countdown,"
G Countdown to Armageddon,'7 or Countdown to Rapture.'8 That
is, they believe this era is the last era of earth's history as we know it,
and is soon to come to a climactic close.
This frenzied interest in biblical prophecy, along with its concomitant
concern with the book of Revelation, has given no indication
whatsoever of calming. Indeed, the calendar suggests that interest in
prophecy is more likely to increase than to diminish – at least for the
Hal Lindsey writes: "What a way to live! With optimism, with anticipation, with
excitement. We should be living like persons who don't expect to be around much
longer" (The Late Great Planet Earth Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1970, p. 145). He also
writes later that "I don' t like cliches but I've heard it said, 'God didn't send me to clean
the fish bowl, he sent me to fish.' In a way there's a truth to that" ("The Great Cosmic
Countdown," Etemi~, Jan. 1977, p. 21 ).
Norman Geisler argues vehemently that "The premillennial that is, dispensational
– KLG position sees no obligation to make distinctly Christian laws" ("A Premillennial
View of Law and Government," Moody h40nth~, Oct. 1985, p. 129).
Because of such statements, we sadly must agree with Pannenbergian theologian Ted
Peters when he says of dispensationalism, "it functions to justifi social irresponsibility,"
and many "find this doctrine a comfort in their lethargy" (Futures: Human and Divine
Atlantzc John Knox, 1978, pp. 28, 29).
13. Timothy P. Webber, The Future Explored (Whaton: Victoq, 1978), p. 9, Ted
Peters observes: "Our Weatem civilization has long been imbued with a general orientation
toward the future; and the present period is witnessing an especially acute epidemic
of future consciousness" (Peters, Futures, p. 11).
14. Hal Lindsey, The 1980s: Countdown to Armageddon (New York: Bantam, 1980), p. 4
15. Kenneth L. Woodward, "The Boom in Doom," Newsweek, 10Jan. 1977, p. 49.
16. Stephen Board, "The Great Cosmic Countdown," Etmri~, Jan. 1977, pp. 19ff.
17. Lindsey, Countdoztm to Armageddon.
18. Salem Kirban, Cowzldoam to Rapture (Irvine, CA: Harvest House, 1977).
Revelation Studies 7
short term. Both liberal and conservative theologians, as well as the
secular and scientific communities, have allowed their imaginations,
hopes, and fears to be captivated by the looming of that magic year,
the year 2000. Even dispensationalist historian Dwight Wilson has
lamented: "As the year 2000 approaches there will undoubtedly be
increased interest in premillenarian ideas and even more hazardous
speculation that this third millennium will be the Thousand Year
Kingdom of Christ."'9 In his philosophico-theological treatise on
futurology, Ted Peters dedicated his entire first chapter – "Toward
the Year 2000" – to a survey and analysis of the interest the year
2000 is already generating. Regarding the interest in the year 2000,
he notes with some perplexity: "It is a curious thing that as we
approach the year 2000 both the secular and scientific communities
are taking a millennialist perspective. . . . All this has given rise to
a new academic profession: namely, futurology. "2° Examples could
be multiplied to the point of exhaustion.
Eschatological inquiry should be a genuinely Christian concern
in that it is fraught with tremendous moral and cultural, as well as
spiritual, implications. Regrettably, prophetic studies have been so
dominated by a naive sensationalism that they have become a source
of embarrassment and grief to many in conservative Christendom.
No book has more trenchantly pointed out the ill-conceived sensationalism
of the modern prophecy movement than Dwight Wilson's
carefully researched and profusely documented Armageddon NOW!21
The only comfort to be derived from this lamentable situation is
that this generation is not the only one to suffer through such. This
seems to be what Justin A. Smith had in mind when late in the last
century he observed: "Perhaps there is no book of the Bible the
literature on which is in a certain way so little helpful to an expositor
as that of the Apocalypse."** Or as church historian Philip Schaff
19. Dwight Wilson, Armageddon Now! (Grand Rapids: Baker, 1977), p. 13.
20. Petera, Fzdures, p. 9. In regard to futurology studies, see for instance: Alvin Tofller,
Future Shock (Toronto: Bantam, 1970); Paul R. Ehrlich, Z% Population Bomb (New York:
Ballantine, 1968); John McHale, 77u Future of the Future (New York George Braziller,
1969); Robert Theobald, Beyond Despair (Washington: New Republic, 1976); Victor
Ferkiss, The Future of Tec/molo@al Civilization (New York: George Braziller, 1974); Charles
A. Reich, The Greening ofAmeri.ca (New York: Bantam, 1970).
21. Wilson, Armageddon Now, pastim.
22. Justin A. Smith, Com&ary on the Rmelatton, in Alvah Hovey, cd., An Arrutian
Commentay on the New Testarrwd (Valley Forge Judson, 1884 rep. n.d.), p. 4.
8 BEFORE JERUSALEM FELL
noted a quarter century laten "The literature of the Apocalypse,
especially in English, is immense, but mostly impository rather than
expository, and hence worthless or even mischievous, because confounding
and misleading."23
An illustration of the current severity of the problem is the
success of Hal Lindsey's publications. These often tend to be as
incautiously sensational as they are immensely popular. For instance,
it is difftcult to conceive of anyone reading Revelation with even a
modicum of spiritual sensitivity who could be less than overawed at
the terri~ing majesty of the revelation of the righteous wrath of
Almighty God as it is unleashed in all its holy fury upon His wicked
enemies. Furthermore, it would seem that anyone reading Revelation
with any appreciation of literature as such could not but stand in
wonder at the intricately woven and multifaceted beauty of its structure
and dramatic movement. Yet in Lindsey's works (which deal in
large part with Revelation), Revelation's majestic splendor is reduced
to simplistic jingles. Cute headings such as "The Future Fuhrer"
(i.e., antichrist), "Scarlet O'Harlot" (i.e., the Harlot of Revelation
17), "the Main Event" (i.e., the glorious Second Advent of Christ),
an so on, dot the pages.24 Despite the caution urged by the historitally
illumined mind in regard to the failure of modern prognosticators,
25 Lindsey confidently asserts: "The information in the book
you're about to read is more up-to-date than tomorrow's newspaper.
I can say this with confidence because the facts and predictions in
the next few pages are all taken from the greatest sourcebook of
current events in the world. "26 In a follow up work he confidently
sets forth his view that the 1980s may be the last generation of our
era.27
23. Philip Schaff, Histoy of the Christian Church, 8 VOIS." (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans,
1910 1950) 1:826,
24. Lindsey, Lute Great Pkrmd Earth, pp. 98, 122, 169.
25. See Wilson's analysis in Armageddon Now! Note J. A. Alexander's warning in the
1800s in his article "The End is Not Yet" (reprinted in The Banrwr of Troth 88 ~anuary,
197 1: lfI). A pertect illustration of unfounded confidence in this regard is A. W. Pink's
The Redeemer's Return (Ashland, KY Calvary Baptist Church, 1918 rep. n.d.), pp. 318fT.
Pink was certain that the beginning of World War I was the beginning of the end. Pink
later changed his views and suppressed this book, which was reprinted only after his
death.
26, Hal Lindsey, There% A NerJ World Coming (Santa Ana, CA: Vision House, 1973),
p. 15.
27. Lindsey, Countdown to Anrw.geddon, pp. 8, 12, 15.
Revelation Studies 9
Another example' of the problem is ready to hand. Six million
copies of a recent publication by Edgar C. Whisenant caused quite
a stir among evangelical in the summer and fall of 1988.28 In that
work, Mr. Whisenant laboriously "demonstrated" why Christ was
to have returned to the earth in September, 1988. Regional news
reports noted that a number of Christians so took his message to
heart that they quit their jobs in anticipation of the event.
As indicated in the literature of our time, there is a widespread
popular interest in Revelation today. Unfortunately, most of the
interest in Revelation seems based on a radical misunderstanding of
the very nature and purpose of the book. And much of this misapprehension
is traceable to confusion regarding its original date of writing,
as will be shown.
It would be a serious error, however, to conclude from the
foregoing observations that interest in Revelation is simply a matter
for those either concerned with understanding ancient history or
intrigued with modern fads. Revelation has not only aroused the
curiosity and engaged the minds of a vast multitude of people in
history, but it has taxed the considerable talents of a host of history's
literati, Christian and non-Christian alike.
Guthrie 'notes that there has been "no neglect" of Revelation
among scholars.29 Earlier, Schulze observed that "the name of the
number of volumes that have been written on and about the Book of
Revelation is LEGION. And these volumes are almost as varied as
the number of authors that have offered the fruits of their study of
this book to the public."3° Over 100 years ago even, Lange noted
that the "literature on the Apocalypse . . . is of immense extent."31
Swete observed that the "literature of the Apocalypse is immense,"
and that "since the invention of printing the output of books upon the
Apocalypse has steadily increased, and a bare enumeration of them
would occupy more space than we can afford."32 Schaff pointed out
28. Edgar C. Whisenant, 88 Rea.som Why the Rapture Could Be in 1988: The Feast oj
Tnirnpeti (hrh-Hmh-Ana), September 11-12-13 (Nashville: World Bible Society, 1988).
29. Guthrie, Introduction,p.931.
30. Henry Schulz., "Preface," in William Hendriksen, More Than Congueror~ (Grand
Rapids: Baker, 1939 1967).
31. John Peter Lange, Revelation, in vol. 24 of J. P. Lange, ed. Cornmenta~ on the HoQ
.!%-ipture: Critical, Doctrmd, and Homiletical, trans. Philip Schaff (Grand Rapids: Zondervan,
rep. n.d.), p. 75.
32. Swete, Revelation, p. cxcvii,
10 BEFORE JERUSALEM FELL
in 1910 that Darling's list of English works on the Apocalypse contained
nearly 54 columns.33 With Carpenter's observation regarding
the literature of the Apocalypse, we are compelled to agree: It is
"peflectly hopeless to touch so vast a subject as this."34
Certainly Revelation has captivated the minds of both the intense
scholar and the part-time student alike. Although presumption and
ima~nation have caused many a commentator to stumble in interpreting
Revelation, nevertheless the book has commanded and will
continue to command the devout attention of those who love God
and His Word.
Interpretive Difficulty of Revelation
As noted, Revelation has historically generated an intensity of
interest unparalleled among any of the books of Scripture. Yet, at the
same time — as evidenced by the extreme diversity of the views on
Revelation – it has been a most dificult book to interpret. Or perhaps
the converse is true: because of the extreme difficulty of interpreting
Revelation, it has created an intense interest! As Chilton has
observed: '(Many rush from their first profession of faith to the last
book in the Bible, treating it as little more than a book of hallucinations,
hastily disdaining a sober-minded attempt to allow the Bible
to interpret itself – and finding, ultimately, only a reflection of their
own prejudices. "35
Too often such a situation is due to the temptations presented
by biblical scholars who gear their works for the popular market.
This seems to be especially true of dispensational theologians. For
instance, Charles Ryrie — an able scholar and probably the leading
dispensationalist theologian of the present day – has written of Revelation:
"How do we make sense out of all those beasts and thrones
and horsemen and huge numbers like 200 million? Answer: Take it
at face value. "36 Later he gives an example of the usefulness of his
"face value" hermeneutic in seeking the correct interpretation of
Revelation 9:1-12 (the locusts from the abyss): "John's description
sounds very much like some kind of war machine or UFO.. Demons
33. Scha~ Hastoy 1:826.
34. W. Boyd Carpenter, The Revelation of St. John, in vol. 8 of John Charles Ellicott,
cd., Ellicott's Comrm-atap on ttu Whole Bible (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, rep. n.d.), p. 532.
35. David Chilton, Paradtie Re$tored (Tyler, TX: Reconstruction Press, 1985), p. 153.
36. Ryrie, T/u Living End, p. 37.
Revelation Studies 11
have the ability to take different shapes, so it is quite possible that
John is picturing a coming invasion of warlike UFOS. Until someone
comes up with a satisfactory answer to the UFO question, this
possibility should not be ruled out."37 Such an interpretation makes
one wonder whose face determines the value! Certainly not the first
century Christians to whom it was written.
Scholar~ Trepidation
The would-be interpreter of Revelation must approach the book
with extreme caution and in humble recognition of the fact that he
is studying a book that has perplexed the finest minds and confused
the most godly saints throughout Christian history. The great Latin
church father Jerome (A.D. 340-420) lamented long ago that it
contained "as many words as mysteries."38 Martin Luther (1483-
1546), the famed reformer and untiring interpreter of Scripture,
originally rejected Revelation as non-canonical, complaining, "My
Spirit cannot adapt itself to the book."39 Fellow reformer Ulrich
Zwingli (1484-1531) refused to take a doctrinal proof-text from Revelation.
w Even John Calvin (1509-1564) omitted Revelation from his
otherwise complete commentary on the New Testament. R. H.
Charles (1855- 193 1), in his celebrated magnum opus on Revelation,
states that it took him twenty-five years to complete his commentary
41 Contemporary expositor Leon Morris has well noted that "the
Revelation . . . is by common consent one of the most diflicult of all
the books of the Bible. It is full of strange symbolism. . . . The result
is that for many modem men Revelation remains a closed book."42
In order to illustrate the need for caution and to hold rein upon
the interpretive imagination – for so much written on Revelation is
just that – it may serve well to list observations from a variety of
Revelation's numerous interpreters on the book's formidability. After
37. Ibid., p. 45.
38. Cited in Schaff, Htitoy 1:826.
39. Cited by Martin H. Franzmann, 7%e Revelation to John (St. Louis: Concordia,
1976), p. 7. Luther was ambivalent with regard to Revelation, as is evident in his gradual
and reluctant acceptance of it. See Martin Luther, Luthert Works, ed. Jaroslav Pelikan
(St. Louis: Concordia, 1957) 24:366 and 35:400.
40. Ibid.
41. R. H. Charles, A Critical and Exegetical CommentaV on th Revelation of St. John, 2 vols.
International Critical Commentary (Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark, 1920) 1 :ix.
42. Leon Morris, The Revdatwn ofSL John (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1969), p. 15.
12 BEFORE JERUSALEM FELL
all, as Reuss observed, "Ideas of the Apocalypse are so widely different
that a summary notice of the exegetical literature, mingling all
together, would be inexpedient. "43
Although he never wrote a commentary on Revelation,w that
master theologian and exegete Benjamin B. Warfield proffered the
following observation regarding the book: "The boldness of its symbolism
makes it the most dificult book of the Bible: it has always
been the most variously understood, the most arbitrarily interpreted,
the most exegetically tortured."45 Milton Terry in his 1911 classic,
Biblical He-rm.eneutics (which is still widely employed in seminaries
today), noted that "no portion of the Holy Scriptures has been the
subject of so much controversy and of so many varying interpretations
as the Apocalypse of John."% Eminent church historian Philip
Schaff cautioned that "no book has been more misunderstood and
abused; none calls for greater modesty and reserve in interpretation.
"47 Swete agreed:
To comment on this great prophecy is a harder task than to comment
on a Gospel, and he who undertakes it exposes himself to the charge
of presumption. I have been led to venture upon what I know to be
dangerous ground. . . .
. . . .
The challenge to unravel the Revelation was accepted almost from
the first, but with results which shew by their wide divergence the
dilliculties of the task. Schools of Apocalyptic interpretation have
arisen, varying not only in detail, but in principle.w
Isbon T. Beckwith has suggested that Revelation probably stands
without parallel in this regard throughout all range of literature: "No
43. Eduard Wilhelm Eugen Reuss, History of the Sacred Scri@mJ of th New Testammt
(Edinburgh: T.& T. Clark, 1884), p. 155.
44. He did write several important theological treatises on various aspects of Revelation
and Revelation studies, such as his entry under "Revelation" in Philip Schti, cd., A
Religious Emyclofiediu: Or Dictionmy of Biblical, Historical, Doctrinal, and Pra&al Theolo~
(New York: Funk and Wagnalls, 1883), vol. 3; his "The Apocalypse" (1886); "The
Millennium and the Apocalypse" (1904); etc.
45. Wartield, "Revelation," in Scha~ Er@opedza 3:2034.
46. Milton S. Terry, Biblical Herm.meutws (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1911 1974),
p. 466.
47. Schaff, Htstoy 1:826.
48. Swete, Revelation, pp. xii, ccvii.
Revelation Studies 13
other book, whether in sacred or profane literature, has received in
whole or in part so many different interpretations. Doubtless no other
book has so perplexed biblical students throughout the Christian
centuries down to our own time. "49
Some biblical scholars are severe in their analysis of the interpretive
attempts on Revelation among commentators. Walter F. Adeney
noted that "imagination runs riot with the elaborate fancies of this
marvelous book. "5° Anthropologist and commentator Vacher Burch
in his thought-provoking Anthropology and the Apocalypse lamented:
"The Book of thz Revelation of Jesus Christ is the most dificult writing
in the New Testament. No plainer proof of this is needed than the
fact that most often it has been artificially sequestered so as to yield
strange chronology and stranger sense, by the ignorant and the wise.
The long history of its interpretation seems to demonstrate that the
majority has desired it to be only a semi-magical writing."51 With
evident concern, Donald W. Richardson observed that "the 'lunatic
fringe' of thinking on the times and seasons and last things of history
has always revelled in the Revelation."52 With a concern akin to that
of Richardson, Greville Lewis complained that "through the centuries
this book has been the happy hunting ground of the cranks who
believed that its cryptic messages were meant to refer to the events
of their own troubled age."53 William Barclay follows suit in his
statement that it has "become the playground of religious eccentries."
5 4
On and on the calls to caution stretch: O. T. Allis, Ralph Earle,
G. R. Beasley-Murray, A. Berkeley Mickelson,55 and a host of other
commentators and theologians agree to its perplexing difficulty. C.
49. Isbon T. Beckwith, The Apoca~jue of John: Stuo!res m Introduction (Grand Rapids:
Baker, 1919 1967), p. 1.
50. Adeney, Bzblical Introduction 2467.
51. Burch, Anthropolo~, p. vii.
52. Donald W. Richardson, The Rewlation of Jesus Chn.d (Richmond: John Knox,
1939 1964), p. 12.
53. Greville P. Lewis, An Approach to New I%tame.t (London: Epworth, 1954), pp.
244-245.
54. William Barclay, The Rerxlatwn of John, 2 vols. Daily Study Bible (Philadelphia:
Westminster, 1960) 1:1.
55. "The Book of Revelation is a hard book to interpret . ." (O. T. Allis, Pro@e~
and t/w Church Nutley, NJ: Presbyterian and Reformed, 1945, p. 210). Ralph Earle,
"Preface" to Harvey J. S. Blaney, Revelation, in Earle, ed., Thz Weslyan Bible L%nmenta~,
vol. 6, (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1966), p. 401. Of the interpreting of Revelation, A.
14 BEFORE JERUSALEM FELL
Milo Connick states the case well when he writes: "The book of
Revelation has the dubious distinction of being the most misunderstood
composition in the New Testament. Many readers don't know
what to think of the writing, and others make altogether too much
of it. "5G
Despite the very real diiliculties associated with the book, however,
it is "given by inspiration of God and is profitable" (2 Tim.
3:16). Thus, surely it is the case that Swete overstated the matter
when he wrote: "The key to the interpretation disappeared with the
generation to which the book was addressed . . . , and apart from
any clue to its immediate reference, it was little else but a maze of
inexplicable mysteries. "57 Neither can we agree with Allen who despairingly
lamented that "the book is, and must remain for the most
part, unintelligible to the average reader."58
Causes of D@ulp
There is a variety of reasons that either independently or collectively
have caused the would-be interpreter to stumble. Foremost
among them seem to be the following (which, due to our main
purpose, will not be given extensive consideration):
First, unfamiliarity with its literary style. Revelation is considered
by most scholars to be of the literary genre known as "apocalyptic."5g
This style is not unique to Revelation among canonical books – though
it is not used elsewhere in canonical literature to the extent it is in
Revelation. Go Apocalyptic imagery may be found in Daniel, Ezekiel,
Berkeley Mickelson noted with mild understatement, "This is no small task" (Interpreting
the Bible Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1963 p. 280). G. R. Beasley-Murray comments that
"Rwelation is probably the most disputed and diflicuh book in the New Testament" (G.
R, Beasley-Murray, Herschell H. Hobbs, Frank Robbins, Revelation: 2%ee Vitwpoirzt$
Nashville: Broadman, 1977, p. 5).
56. C. Milo Connick, Tb New Tfitamsnt: An Introductwn to ItJ Hi.rto~, Literature, and
Thought (Belmont, CA: *, 1972), p. 406.
57. Swete, Revelation, p. cxix
58. Willoughby C. Allen and L. W. Grensted, Introdwtion to the Books of the New
Testarrmd, 3d ed. (Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark, 1929), p. 273.
59. The source of apocalyptic imagery, contrary to secularistic anthropologists, is not
first century apocalypticism, but Old Testament era canonical prophetic imagery. The
first century apocalyptic movement itself grew up in a literary milieu dominated by the
Old Testament. Revelation is genealogically related to the Old Testament, not to
non-canonical mythology. See note 1 above
60. "There is only one other Apocalypse which may be compared with Daniel, and
Revelation Studies 15
and Isaiah most notably, but it is sprinkled throughout Scripture in
numerous prophetic sections, including the teaching of Christ. "Of
all the books of the New Testament this is the farthest removed from
modern life and thought. . . . Apocalyptic has long ceased to be, as
it once was, a popular branch of literature. "c' This is especially
troublesome for the "face value" school of interpreters.
Second, overlooking its original author and audience. In a quest
for "relevance," commentators of the historicist and futurist schools
seem to forget that John addressed Revelation to real, historical
churches (Rev. 1:4, 11) about pressing and dire problems that he and
they faced in the first century (Rev. 1:9 and chapters 2-3). In doing
so a most fundamental rule of hermeneutics is breached. Two hermeneutics
texts may be cited to illustrate the importance of this principie.
Berkhof's helpful study, Principles of Biblical Interpretation, teaches
that hermeneutics "is properly accomplished only by the readers'
transposing themselves into the time and spirit of the author."c2
Mickelsen's widely used Interpreting the Bible notes: "Simply stated,
the task of interpreters of the bible is to find out the meaning of a
statement (command, question) for the author and for the first
hearers or readers, and thereupon to transmit that meaning to modern
readers."c3 Needless to say, removing the setting of the book
twenty or more centuries into the future is not conducive to a correct
apprehension of its interpretation.
Third, misconstrual of its original intent. Revelation has two
fundamental purposes relative to 'its original hearers. In the first
place, it was designed to steel the first century Church against the
gathering storm of persecution, which was reaching an unnerving
crescendo of theretofore unknown proportions and intensity. A new
and major feature of that persecu~ion- was the entrance of imperial
Rome onto the scene. The first historical persecution of the Church
by imperial Rome was by Nero Caesar from A.D. 64 to A.D. 68.64
that is the New Testament book of Revelation" (Edward J. Young, The Prophq of Daniel
Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1949, p. 22).
61. Allen, Introduztwn, p. 273.
62. Louis Berkhof, Ptinci}les of Biblical Znterpretrztian (Grand Rapids: Baker, 1950
1974), p. 11.
63. Mickelsen, Interpreting the Bibte, p. 5.
64. See later discussion in Chapter 17.
16 BEFORE JERUSALEM FELL
In the second place, it was to brace the Church for a major and
fimdamental re-orientation in the course of redemptive history, a
re-orientation necessitating the destruction of Jerusalem (the center
not only of Old Covenant Israel, but of Apostolic Christianity cp.
Acts 1 :8; 2: lK; 15:2 and the Temple cp. Matt. 24:1-34 with Rev.
11).65
This matter of intent necessitates a corollary hermeneutical principle
to that in point 2 above: "One of the basic principles of sound
interpretation is that a later interpreter must find out what the author
of an earlier writing was trying to convey to those who first read his
words."GG Both the recognition of the parties (author and recipients
of the letter) and the purpose of a written document are essential to
the proper grasp of the message. BeckWith has well-stated the matter:
"For the understanding of the Revelation ofJohn it is essential to put
one's sel~ as far as possible, into the world of its author and of those
to whom it was first addressed. Its meaning must be sought for in the
light thrown upon it by the condition and circumstances of its readers,
by the author's inspired purpose, and those current beliefs and
traditions that . . . influenced the fashion which his visions themselves
took."G7
A whole host of other factors adding to the difficulty of the
interpretation of Revelation could be brought forward at this juncture.
More relevant to the present purpose, however, is a final
complicating factor that will be considered separately in the next
chapter.
I
65. See later discussion in Chapters 11, 13, and 14.
66. Mickelsen, Interpreting, p. 23.
67. Beckwith, Revelation, p. v.
2
THE APPROACH TO THE
QUESTION OF DATING
The Importance of Dating
In several respects Revelation is reminiscent of the Old Testament
book of Daniel: ( 1 ) Each is a prophetic work. (2) Each was
written by a devout, God-fearing Jew in times of the author's personal
exile and national Jewish distress. (3) Each shares a frequent
and very obvious stylistic similarity. (4) Revelation frequently draws
from Daniel. 1 Indeed, Revelation is even recognized as a New Testament
Daniel by some scholars. Mounce observes that "it is the NT
counterpart to the OT apocalyptic book of Daniel."2
Beyond these significant similarities there are two other related
issues that directly bear upon our major concern. One is that both
have widely disputed dates argued by biblical scholars, dates that
fall into two general classes: "late" and "early." Whereas liberal
scholars invariably argue for a late date for Daniel (i.e., during the
Maccabean era), almost as invariably do conservatives argue for its
early date (i.e., during the Babylonian exile).3 The division between
1. Swete has observed that "there are certain books which the author uses with
especial frequency; more than half his references to the Old Testament belong to the
Psalms, the prophecies of Isaiah and Ezekiel, and the Book of Daniel, and in proportion
to its length the Book of Daniel yields by far the greatest number" (Henry B. Swete,
Cmsnuntury on Revelation Grand Rapids: Kregel, 1906 1977, p. cliii).
2. Robert H. Mounce, Tlu Book of Revelation. New International Commentary on the
New Testament (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1977), p. 23. Cf. also John F. Walvoord, Tle
Revelation ofJesus Christ: A Comrrwztary (Chicago: Moody, 1966), p. 122.
3. As per most conservative scholars, for example: C. F. Keil and Franz Delitzsch,
Btblical Comrn@ary on the Book of Daniel. Keil and Delitzsch Old Testament Commentaries
(Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, rep. 1975), p. 43ff.; Merrill F. Unger, lntrodzukr~ Guide tu th
Old Testament (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 195 1), pp. 394fE; E. J. Young, The Prophe~ of
Damel (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1949), pp. 23R.; Young, An Introduction to thz Old
Testament (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1949), pp. 360ff.; and R. K. Harrison, Zntroductwn
to the Old Testament (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1969), pp. 1110II
17
18 BEFORE JERUSALEM FELL
the two general dating camps regarding Revelation does not necessarily
fall along conservative/liberal lines. Nevertheless, the division
between Revelation scholars also tends to fall into two general camps.
These, too, are usually classed as "late" (c. A.D. 95) and "early"
(pre-A.D. 70, generally determined to be between A.D. 64 and A.D.
70) ?
New Testament scholars commonly divide the options on the
dating of Revelation between these two periods.5 We should note,
however, that more precise dates than simply pre-A.D. 70 and c.
A.D. 95 have been suggested by scholars – although the demonstration
of a pre-A.D. 70 date is the major issue. For instance, Guthrie
presents a three-fold classification based on the eras of three different
Roman emperors: Domitian, Nero, and Vespasian.G Kepler suggests
four different time-frame classifications: (1) late Nero, (2) between
Nero and A.D. 70, (3) Vespasian, and (4) late Domitian.7
Second, the interpretation of both is strongly influenced by the
date assigned by the interpreter. Although the time span separating
the two general camps among Revelation interpreters (about 30
years) is not as broad as that which separates Danielic scholars
(around 400 years), the catastrophic events separating the two Revelation
dates are of enormous consequence. Those events include most
prominently: (1) the beginnings of the Roman persecution of Christianity
(A.D. 64-68); (2) the Jewish Revolt and the destruction of the
4. There are even some noted early date scholars that hold to dates during Claudius's
reign in the mid-A.D. 40s (e.g., Ziillig, Grotius, and Hammond), but this position is quite
rare. See William Milligan, Dimmim.s on the A@ca(@e (London: Macmillan, 1893), pp.
75ff. Still others hold a mid-50s date. See Milton S. Terry, Biblical Hen-nerwatics, p. 241 n
for source documentation.
5. For example, Robert H. Gund~ mentions only two options: in the general era of
Nero and of Domitian; Gundry, SUrug of the New T~~tanwst (Grand Rapids: Zondeswan,
1970), pp. 364-365. See also G. R. Beasley-Murray, The Book of Revelation. New Century
Bible (London: Marshall, Morgan, and Scott, 1974), p. 37; Harry E. Boer, T/u Book of
Revelation (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1979), p. 19; J. W. Roberts, The Revelation to John
(Austin, TX: Sweet, 1974), p. ~ Mounce, Revelation, pp. 32-33; Leon Morris, The
Revelation of St. John (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1969), p. 34.
6. Donald Guthrie, New Testament Introdadion, 3rd ed. (Downers Grove, IL: Inter-
Varsity Press, 1970), pp. 949tT, 958ff., 961. It should be noted that the Neronic and
Vespasianic time-frames under consideration are very close, usually understood to be
separated by a period of fmm as early as A.D. 64 to around A.D. 70. Thus, they may
both be considered in the "early" time-frame.
7. Thomas S. Kepler, The Book of Reoelatwn: A Comrnentay jr Ixynwn (New York
Oxford, 1957), p. 19.
Th Approach to the Question of Dating 19
Temple (A.D.67-70); and(3) the Roman Civil Warof A. D. 68-69.
The compaction of the time-frame in question should not be deemed
of little consequence. For instance, the events separating 1770 from
1800 in American history certainly brought about a remarkable
change in American society, as did the events of 1940-1945 as to
Japan's and Germany's histories.
A basic rule of hermeneutics is that a writing's date of origin
must be ascertained as exactly as possible. This is as true for the
revealed books in Scripture as it is for any other works of literature.
As Berkhof noted in his standard hermeneutics manual: "The word of
God originated in a historical way, and ttbrefore, can be understood on~ in .&
light of histo~."a From this general principle he goes on to assert
strongly that: "It is impossible to understand an author and to interpret hfi
words correct~ unless he is seen against th proper histon"cid background."g
Terry, in his longstanding hermeneutics classic, spoke of this principle:
It is of the first importance, in interpreting a written document, to
ascertain who the author was, and to determine the time, the place,
and the circumstances of his writing. . . . Herein we note the import
of the term grammatico+istotial interpretation. We are not only to
grasp the grammatical import of words and sentences, but also to feel
the force and bearing of the historical circumstances which may in
any way have affected the writer. Hence, too, it will be seen how
intimately connected may be the object or design of a writing and the
occasion which prompted its composition. 10
This rule is especially important in interpreting a book purporting
to be prophetic. To choose a bold example by way of illustration,
it is a matter of immense significance whether we accept the Latterday
Saints's assertion that T/w Book of Mormon was written only a few
centuries after the birth of Christ or the non-Mormon consensus that
it was written in the late 1820s. If it is acknowledged that the book
was written in the 1800s then its "prophecies" regarding the "future"
discovery of America are exposed as frauds.
8. Louis Berkhof, Pnr@les of Biblizal Int@retatwn (Grand Rapids: Baker, 1950
1974), p. 113.
9. Ibid., p. 114.
10. Milton S. Terry, Biblical Henrumeutus (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, rep. 1974), p.
231.
20 BEFORE JERUSALEM FELL
Regarding the biblical record, Berkhofhas rightly asserted: "For
the correct understanding of a writing or discourse, it is of the utmost
importance to know for whom it was first of all intended. This applies
particularly to those books of the Bible that are of an occasional
character, such as the prophetical books and the New Testament
Epistles." 11 To his sampling could be added Revelation, as well.
Allen and Grensted have noted in regard to Revelation particularly
that "the question of the date of the publication of the Revelation is
of great importance for the interpretation of the book. . . . Much
of ~ohn's language, therefore, can only be understood through the
medium of historical knowledge." 12 Guthrie, who sides with those in
the late date camp, speaks of the matter of the date of Revelation
somewhat less forcefully. Yet he, too, observes that the question is
significant. He feels that the main purpose is unaffected by the dating
question, but admits that the question of date may be necessary for
"arriving at a satisfactory interpretation of the book. " 13
Terry uses Revelation as a particularly illustrative example of
this grammatico-historical principle:
The great importance of ascertaining the historical standpoint of an
author is notably illustrated by the controversy over the date of the
Apocalypse of John. If that prophetical book was written before the
destruction of Jerusale@ a number of its particular allusions must
most naturally be understood as referring to that city and its fall. It
however, it was written at the end of the reign of Domitian (about
A.D. 96), as many have believed, another system of interpretation is
necessary to explain the historical allusions.'4
Guthrie aside, it can be argued that the matter with which this
study is concerned speaks to a question of the utmost significance in
the right understanding of this important and intriguing book. Whether
Revelation was written early or not has a tremendous bearing upon
the direction interpreters may take in its exposition. If the destruction
of the Temple looms in the near future for the author, it would seem
that historically verifiable events within the prophecies could be
11. Berkhof, Riru#es, pp. 124-125.
12. Willoughby C. Allen and L. W. Grensted, Introduc&wn to &Booh of the New
ZMmnent, 3rd ed. (Edinburgh: T. &T. Clark, 1929), p. 278.
13. Guthrie, Introdudion, p. 949.
14. Terry, Hermenadks, p, 237.
Th Approach to the Qustion of Dating 21
discerned with a heightened degree of confidence. A rather obvious
stumbling block would be placed before the careless interpreter to
deter extravagance. If the book was written two and one-half decades
after the destruction of the Temple, however, then the prophecies are
necessarily open to an extrapolation into the most distant future, and
to the exclusion of the important events of A.D. 67-70. Hence, the
whole bearing of Revelation on New Testament eschatology may
well be altered by the determination of the matter before us.
Assumptions and Limitations
Before actually entering into the argument for the early date of
Revelation, it will be necessary to mention briefly certain methodological
matters regarding the present work's assumptions and
limitations. Regardless of how thorough and exhaustive a researcher
may attempt to be, no one investigating any subject can hope to deal
with every single facet and implication of his topic. Only the mind
of God exhaustively knows all things. Furthermore, neither is it
necessary, particularly if there are available adequate treatments of
the various related questions. And in order to be both honest for the
critic's sake and helpful to the student, it is advisable that a researcher
cite the assumptions and limitations of a particular project
before actually engaging the topic. Some of the more fundamental
assumptions and limitations in this work include the following.
Canonici~
First, the most important assumption governing the writer is that
of the canonicity of Revelation. As indicated before, Revelation is one
of the books of the Protestant canon that was much debated in early
Church history. Nevertheless, its place in the canon is accepted today
by all evangelical and conservative Christians. Its canonicity has
been ably argued in the standard conservative commentaries and
introductions.
Although an investigation of the dating of Revelation (or any
book of the Bible, for that matter) does not demand this presupposition,
nevertheless it is not without significance. The importance of
this assumption lies in the fact that it demands the devout treatment
of the topic at hand by the researcher. What is being dealt with is the
Covenant Word of the Living God; no cavalier approach to the issue
is tolerable. The research presented below is written with a strong
22 BEFORE JERUSALEM FELL
conviction as to the canonicity and significance of Revelation and is
based, as best the writer is able to discern, on the most compelling
of evidence.
Furthermore, in that Revelation is canonical Scripture it therefore
possesses the attributes of Scripture, including absolute authority,
truthfulness, and inerrancy. Revelation's authority is the authority
of the voice of the Living God and the Exalted Christ. The
truthfulness of the book, therefore, is impeccable. Consequently,
Revelation does not err in any of its assertions, prophecies, or implications.
This assumption will be shown to matter a great deal when the
actual argument for Revelation's dating is begun, for the argument
will greatly stress Revelation's internal witness. As will be shown, the
internal witness must be given the highest priority.
Authorship
Second, an assumption that is open to debate even among conservative
scholars but will not receive attention in the present research
is the Johannine authorship of Revelation. The position of the present
writer is that Revelation was written by the Apostle John, the son of
Zebedee, the disciple of Christ. This John is also held to be the
human author of the Gospel ofJohn and the three epistles ofJohn.
Now, of course, Revelation does not specifically designate the
author as "the Apostle John. " The opening statements of Revelation
mention only that "John" wrote it without speci~ing which particular
John. Thus, to assert that the writer was not the Apostle would
not be to deny our first assumption regarding its canonicity. Apostolic
authorship may be an indicator of canonicity, but it is not a tiw qua
non of it. The New Testament includes several books not written by
the original Twelve Apostles: Mark, *5 Luke, the Pauline epistles,
James, Jude, and Hebrews.
Nevertheless, the present writer is well aware of the various
arguments against Johannine authorship. 16 The matter of authorship
15. Even if we accept the widespread and very credible view of tradition that Mark
was writing under the direction of Peter, it remains that the author was Mark; in contrast
to the epistles of Peter, which were written by the apostle.
16. Among the more serious arguments against an apostolic authorship are the
following (1) The author claims to be a "prophet" and not an "apostle." (2) The author
names himsel~ contrary to John's writings. (3) There are no allusions to incidents in the
The Approach to tr'w Question of Dating 23
is a most significant question. Extremely strong defenses of its apostolic
authorship, however, are available from such noted scholars as
B. B. Wariield, William Milligan, Henry B. Swete, Donald Guthrie,
and Austin Farrer, *7 to name but a few.
Third, another very weighty consideration that has been vigorously
debated, but which will be assumed in the present research, is
the matter of the unity of Revelation. An array of approaches has
arisen as to Revelation's original content and composition history,
including various emendations by the same writer and numerous
editions by later editors. These have been suggested in order to
explain some of its alleged disunity.
Furthermore, these matters do have a great bearing upon its
date. Moffatt has boldly asserted that "the Neronic date (i.e. soon
after Nero's death) exerts most of its fascination on those who cling
to too rigid a view of the book's unity, which prevents them from
looking' past passages like xi. lf. and xvii. 9f." 18 Even as conservative
a scholar as Swete rebuts Lightfoot, Westcott, and Hort for their
support of the A.D. 68-69 date due to two presuppositions they hold,
one of which is the matter under consideration: "The unity of the
Book is assumed, and it is held to be the work of the author of the
Fourth Gospel. But the latter hypothesis is open, and perhaps will
always be open to doubt; and the former cannot be pressed so far as
Gospel and no claim to have known Christ personally. (4) There seem to be several
uncharacteristic emphases if by the apostle, e.g., God as Majestic Creator (instead of
Compassionate Father), Christ as Conqueror (instead of Redeemer), a seven-foldness to
the Holy Spirit (rather than a unity). (5) There is a different range of thought, i.e. an
omission of characteristically Johannine ideas such. as life, light, truth, grace, and love.
(6) Linguistic style. (7) Doubt as to apostolic authorship among Eastern churches. All
of these and more are ably answered in the introductions and commentators to be cited
next.
17. B. B. Wa&leld, "Revelation," in Philip Schaff, ed., A Rehgiow Emyclo,bedia: Or
Dictwnay of Biblical, Htitorical, Doctrinal, and Practical Thology (New York: Funk and
Wagnalls, 1883) 3:2034ff. Milligan, Apoca~/sse, pp. 149ff. Swete, Revelation, pp. cxx ff.
Guthrie, Introduction, pp. 932ff. Austin Farrer, Tlw Revelatwn afSt. John the Diuim (Oxford:
Clarendon, 1964), chap. 1. Farrer's demonstration of Johannine authorship is unique in
its exposition of the correspondence of the literary patterns between the Gospel and
Revelation. Farrer would not be classed as a "conservative" scholar.
18. James Moffatt, Tlu Revelation of St. John the Divitw, in W. R. Nicoll, cd., Englishman's
Greek Testament, vol. 5 (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, rep. 1980), p. 317.
24 BEFORE JERUSALEM FELL
to exclude the possibility that the extant book is a second edition of
an earlier work, or that it incorporates earlier materials." 19
As tempting as delving into this question is, we will by-pass it,
with only occasional reference in later portions of this study. The
reasons for by-passing this particular matter are not merely mechanical;
that is, they are not totally related to the difficulty of the topic
or the bulk of research that would be generated herein (although the
latter consideration is certainly legitimate). Rather the rationale for
omitting discussion of the matter is more significant and is of a
theological nature. The primary reason for its exclusion is due to the
obvious difficulty of maintaining the composite and discordant nature
of Revelation while defending its canonicity and its revelational quality.
How can we maintain a coherent theory of Revelation's inspiration
if it has gone through several editions under several different
hands? The problem is virtually the same with the more familiar
questions related to such books as the Pentateuch and Isaiah, for
instance. This is why almost invariably those who have argued for its
composite nature are of the liberal school of thought. A secondary
reason is due to the intention of the present writer. This treatise is
written with an eye not to the liberal theologian, but to the conservative.
The plea for a hearing in this research project is toward conservative
theologians who stand with the author on the fundamental
theological issues, such as the inspiration and inerrancy of Scripture.
The debate engaged is an "intramural" debate among evangelical.
Survey of Scholarly Opinion
In virtually all of the popular literature on Revelation and in
much of that which is more scholarly, the assumption often is that
informed scholarship unanimously demands a late date for Revelation.
The impression, if not the actual intent, is given that a scholar's
adherence to an early date for Revelation is due either to an ostrichlike
avoidance of the facts or to his not being abreast of the literature.
For example, Barclay M. Newman, Jr., states: "Among present-day
New Testament scholars it is almost unanimously agreed that the
book of Revelation was written at a period late in the first century,
when the churches of Asia Minor were undergoing persecution by
19. Swete, Revelation, p. eiv. It should be noted that Swete opts for tbe Johannine
authomhip as the most pderable. See above comments.
% Approach to th Que.stwn of Dating 25
the Roman Authorities ."20 The impression is clea~ If "present-day"
scholarship is "almost unanimously agreed" upon the late date, how
shall we be up-to-date if we disagree? In an unusual twist, C. F. D.
Moule suggests in his first edition of l?u Birth of tb New Testarrwnt
that perhaps no book but Revelation should be dated later than A.D.
70!21 Furthermore, this common assertion overlooks a fairly widespread
adherence to an early date among noted classicists, such as
B. W. Henderson, A. Weigall, George Edmundson, A. D. Momigliano,
and others.
Another means to discredit the early date view is by exposing
"embarrassing advocates," i.e. of the radical liberal schools. George
Eldon Ladd makes some observations on the preterist approach to
Revelation (which is very frequently related to early date advocacy)
that tend to diminish its credibility on just such grounds: "But for the
preterist interpretation, the Revelation is no more a true prophecy
than is its contemporary apocalypse, IV Ezra."22 Cartledge's argument
regarding the preterist view (and, hence, impacting on the early
date view) is similar: "Revelation is considered a purely human
message of encouragement to the churches. The visions apply to
first-century events or are human guesses as to the general future.
Many pretensts think that the author formed his book by taking the
visions from other apocalyptic books that he knew and adapting them
to his purposes. "23 Robert H. Gundry writes in the same vein: "Of
course, under this view Revelation turned out to be mistaken — Jesus
did not return quickly although the Roman Empire did fall and
Christianity continued. Consequently preterists attempt to salvage
the significance of the book for modern times by resorting also to the
idealist view. Preterists are prone to infer a utilization of pagan
mythology throughout Revelation."24
20. Barctay M. Newman, Jr., Rediseouering the Book of Revelation (Valley Forge: Judson,
1968), p. 11.
21. C. F. D. Moule, The Birth of the New THturnent, 1st ed. (Cambridge: University
Press, 1962), pp. 121-123. Later, however, he changed his position, after the publication
of John A. T. Robinson's Re&ting thz New Testament (Philadelphia: Westminster, 1976).
See footnote on Moule in the list of scholars below.
22. George Eldon Ladd, A Theology of the New Tatament (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans,
1974), p. 621.
23. Samuel A. Cartledge, A Comeruative Introduction to the New Testarrwni (Grand Rapids:
Zondervan, 1938), p. 172.
24. Robert H. Gundry, Sungy of the New Testament (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1970),
p. 366.
26 BEFORE JERUSALEM FELL
The problem with such observations is that they have failed to
recognize a critical distinction between preterists of radical, naturalistic
liberalism (e.g., the Tubingen school) and those of evangelical,
supernaturalistic orthodoxy (e.g., Moses Stuart, Milton Terry, and
Philip Schafl). In point of fact, however, "there is a radical difference
between those Preterists who acknowledge a real prophecy and permanent
truth in the book, and the rationalistic Preterists who regard
it as a dream of a visionary which was falsified by events."25
Of course, not all late date proponents so readily write off early
date advocacy. Signs are presently emerging that indicate that this
tendency to discount early date arguments may be changing. Late
date advocate Leon Morris recognizes the relative strength of the
early date argument when he writes: "There appear to be two dates
only for which any considerable arguments are available, in the time
of the Emperor Domitian, or in or just after that of Nero. "26 And he
is less than dogmatic in establishing his own position when he states
that "while the evidence is far from being so conclusive that no other
view is possible, on the whole it seems that a date in the time of
Domitian, i.e., c. A.D. 90-95, best suits the facts."27 Peake speaks
similarly of the matter: "It may be granted that the case for a date
in the rei~ of Domitian has been sometimes overstated. But this
date is probab~ to be accepted."28 J. P. M. Sweet agrees: "We have
assumed so far that the book was written well after the fall of
Jerusalem in A.D. 70, but the evidence is far from conclusive. . . .
To sum up, the earlier date may be right, but the internal evidence is
not sufficient to outweigh the firm tradition stemming from Irenaeus.
"29 Gundry's position indicates this awareness: "The traditional
and probable date of Revelation is the reign of Domitian. "3° A
telling admission, it seems, has been made by renowned commentator
and late date advocate R. H. Charles: "It thus follows that the
25. Philip Schaff, Histoy of the Christian Church, 8 vols. (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans,
1910 1950) 1:837-838.
26. Morris, Revelatwn, p. 34.
27. Ibid., p. 40.
28. Arthur S. Peake, Ttw Revelation of John (London: Joseph Johnson, 1919), p. 96.
Emphasis mine.
29. J. P. M. Sweet, Revelation. Westminster Pelican Commentaries (Philadelphia
Westminster, 1979), pp. 21, 27.
30. Gundry, Suing of the New Testarnd, p. 365, Emphasis mine.
The Approach to the Question of Dating 27
date of the Apocalypse, according to the Preterist school, was about
67-68 or thereabouts. And if the absolute unity of the Apocalypse be
assumed, there is no possibility, I think, of evading this conclusion. "31
Nevertheless, the widespread assumption still remains that "all scholars
know" that Revelation was written toward the end of the first
century, in the rnid-A.D. 90s.
The Ebb and Flow of $cholar~ Opinion
In his Redating the New Testanwnt, Robinson provides a helpful
survey of the historical ebb and flow of scholarly opinion on the
matter of the chronology of all the New Testament books. This ebb
and flow quite naturally had its effect on Revelation dating. His
survey provides the following general analysis based on 50-year
increments.32
Around 1800 dates for the New Testament canon ranged very
conservatively between A.D. 50 and A.D. 100. By 1850, due to the
Tubingen school of thought and under the special influence of F. C.
Baur, the range of dates had widened from A.D. 50+ to A.D. 160 +.
Regarding Revelation's date under the sway of Tubingen, "it was a
striking paradox that the Tubingen School which left Paul with only
four or, as put by Hilgenfeld in a more moderate form, with only
seven authentic Epistles, and brought most of the New Testament
documents down to a late date, should in the case of the Apocalypse
have affirmed apostolic authorship and a date quarter of a century
earlier than that assigned by tradition."33
But by 1900 the prodigious labors of conservative scholars
– particularly J. B. Lightfoot and Theodore Zahn – had caused
a drastic modification. Conservatives were again able to argue confidently
and compellingly for dates within the tolerable A.D. 50 to
A.D. 100 range for the New Testament canon.34 The liberal school
31. R. H. Charles, Studie$ m the Apoca@se (Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark, 1913), p. 57.
On pages 58fI, Charles sets out to demonstrate the book should not be considered a
unity. Simcox comments in this regard: "Ten years ago when it was still generally
assumed that all the visions arid signs were recorded by one writer at one time, most
foreign critics were disposed to admit both St. John's authorship and the early date."
See William Henry Simcox, T/u Revelation of .9. John Diuirw The Cambridge Bible for
Schools and Colleges (Cambridge 1898), p. xxxix.
32. Robinson, Redating, pp. 3fT.
33. Peake, Revelation, p. 77.
34. See for example, James Hastings, cd., Dictiotumy of tb Bible, 5 VOIS. (New York:
28 BEFORE JERUSALEM FELL
was in turmoil; for example, Harnack offered the widest range of
dates – between A.D. 48 and A.D. 175. The radical critics were
"oscillating wildly" at the turn of the century .35
Regarding Revelation studies in this era between 1850 and 1900,
Schaff admits to having held to a late date originally, only eventually
to accept an early date upon further research.3G Schaff could even
write: "The early date of Revelation is now accepted by perhaps
the majority of scholars."37 Even late date advocate William Milligan
admits: "Recent scholarship has, with little exception, decided in
favour of the earlier and not the later date."38 Hort comments that
in his day "the general tendency of criticism has been towards the
view that the circumstances and events present to the writer's eye are
not those of Domitian's time, and are those of the time between
Nero's persecution (about 64) and the fall of Jerusalem (70), i.e. at
least 25 years earlier than on the common view."39 Another late date
advocate, Peake, writes: "In deference to our earliest evidence, the
statement of Irenaeus, the Book was generally considered to belong
to the close of Domitian's reign; but during the greater part of the
nineteenth century there was a strong majority of ccitics in favour of
a date some quarter of a century earlier. This view was entertained
by both advanced and conservative scholars. But some time before
the close of the last century opinion began to move back to the
traditional date, and for several years it has secured the adhesion of
the great majority of scholars."m Early date advocates were as confident
then as late date advocates have been later in the present
century. Farrar asserts that "there can be no reasonable doubt respecting
the date of the Apocalypse."41 He speaks of it as a "certain
Scribners, 1898-1904); B. W. Bacon, Introduction to thz New Evtament (New York: Macmillan,
1900); and Theodore Zahn, Zntrodudion to New lktament, 4 vols. (Leipzig 1897-1899).
35. Robinson, Redating, p. 6.
36. Philip Schaff, Hi.n!ay @ the Chtitian Church, 3rd cd., 7 vols. (Grand Rapids:
Eerdmans, 1910 1950) 1:834. See his Hi.rtoU # the Christian Church (1st cd., 1853), pp.
418ff., for his earlier position.
37. Schaffs editorial note to Wartleld's "Revelation" article in Schaff, Emyclu@dia
3:2036.
38. Milligan, Apoca~pse, p. 75.
39. F. J. A. Hort, The Apoca@e of St, John: Z-III (London: Macmillan, 1908), p. x.
40. Peake, Revelation, p. 70.
41. Frederic W. Farrar, The Ear~ Days of Chri.rtian@ (New York: Cassell, 1884), p.
387.
Th Approach to the Question of Dating 29
conclusion"42 and notes that "the whole weight of evidence now tends
to prove" it.43 Terry follows suit when he observes that "the trend of
modem criticism is unmistakably toward the adoption of the early
date of the Apocalypse."w
Robinson goes on to note in regard to the general dating trends
relative to the whole .New Testament that by 1950 there was witnessed
a narrowing of the gap between liberal and orthodox scholars,
approaching even some degree of consensus .45
In order to dispel the common, but erroneous, notion of the fixity
and unanimity of scholarly opinion in regard to the date of Revelation
– a notion that is particularly frustrating to debate – we shall
provide a catena of scholars of both the past and present who affh-m
an early date for Revelation. As this is done it must be kept in mind
that the scholars cited are of the genefal camp of those who posit an
early date for Revelation. The list should not be taken as one that
indicates a thorough-going and harmonious agreement as to the exact
date and circumstances of the writing. Nor, unfortunately, is there
even agreement among these scholars as to the inspiration of Revelation.
Some, indeed, are of the various liberal schools of biblical
interpretation. % Unlike the situation in Old Testament studies, the
conservative and liberal camps are not divided over the issue of
dating, with the liberals opting for a late date.
It should further be borne in mind that truth is not founded either
upon majority rule or upon the eminence of a scholar's reputation.
The following listing of pre-A.D. 70 scholars is not given with a view
to establishing the early date argument. It is simply proffered to ward
off naive and misconceived initial objections to considering the argument
— objections of the order: "but New Testament scholars are
agreed. . . ."
42. Ibid.
43. Ibid., pp. 4Q4-405.
44. Terry, Hermzrwu tus, p. 241n.
45, Robinson, Redating, p. 6.
46. Rather than diminishing their usefulness in this survey, this enhances it, for two
reasons: ( 1 ) The presence of those of liberal persuasion demonstrates that the position
is not held simply as a matter of doctrinal bia> and (2) the liberal biblical scholar is
keenly interested in historical matters (such as the question of the date of Revelation)
and frequently provides important insights into such historical questions.
30
Source Documentation
We will cite only
scholarly labors merit
works that promote a
BEFORE JERUSALEM FELL
those authors who by their noteworthy and
a careful hearing. There are numerous lesser
pre-A.D. 75 date that we could set forth as
defenses of the early date view; these are omitted as inconsequential.47
Where possible we will employ original documentation. Where this
has not been possible, we will note the sources from which we
discovered their positions. No secondary source that is at all of
dubious scholarly distinction will be given consideration. The numbers
in braces that precede the immediately following list of
secondary sources will be used at the end of each source entry in the
catena below. Some entries in the catena will have multiple sources.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
Greg L. Bahnsen, "The Book of Revelation: Its Setting" (unpublished
research paper, 1984), pp. 14fl
Adam Clarke, Clarke's Commenta~ on the Whole Bible, vol. 6 (Nashville:
rep. n.d.), p. 961.
Frederic W. Farrar, The Ear~ Days of Christian@ (New York:
Cassell, 1884), p. 408.
Arthur S. Peake, T& Revelation of John (London: Joseph Johnson,
1919).
John A. T. Robinson, Redating th New ZZstament (Philadelphia:
Westminster, 1976), p. 225.
Philip Schaff, Histo~ of thz Christian Church, vol. 1: Apostolic Christiani~
(Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1910 1950), p. 834.
Henry B. Swete, Commentary on Revelation (Grand Rapids: Kregel,
1906 1977), p. ciii.
Milton S. Terry, Bibltial Hermawutics (Grand Rapids: Zondervan,
rep. 1974), pp. 241n, 467.
Catezw of Ear~ Date Advocates
The following listing is arranged in alphabetical, rather than
47. For example: Robert L. Pierce, The Rapture Cult (Signal Mtn., TN: Signal Point
Press, 1986); Ed Stevens, What Happerud in 70 A. D.? (Ashtabula, Ohio North East Ohio
Bible Inst., 1981 ); Max R. King, i% Spirit of Prophqv (Warren, OH: by the author,
1971 ); Ulrich R. Beeson, The Rewlation (Birmingham, AL: by the author, 1956); Jessie
E. Mills, Surzgv of th Book of Revelation (Bonifay, FL by the author, n.d.).
The Approach to tlw Qmstion of Dating
chronological order, for easy reference.
Firmin Abauzit, Essai sur 1' Apoca@pse (Geneva: 1730). 1, 6
31
Jay E. Adams, The Time
and Reformed, 1966).
Luis de Alcasar, Ve.stigatio
6
B. Aub& 6, 3
is at Hand (Phillipsburg, NJ: Presbyterian
arcarzi Semw.s in Apoca@p.si (Antwerp: 1614).
Karl August Auberlen, Daniel and Reuelatwn in T/wir Mutual Relation
(Andover: 1857). 3, 8
Greg L. Bahnsen, "The Book of Revelation: Its Setting" (unpublished
paper, 1984).
Arthur Stapylton Barnes, Christiani~ at Rome in the Apostolic Age (Westport,
CT: Greenwood, 1938 1971), pp. 159ff.
James Vernon Bartlet, Th Apostolic Age: Its L@, Doctrine, Worship, and
Polio (Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark, 1899 1963), Book 2, pp. 388ff.
1
Ferdinand Christian Baur, Church Histo~ of the First Three Cerzturies,
3rd ed. (Tubingen: 1863). 3,4, 6, 7
Albert A. Bell, Jr., "The Date of John's Apocalypse. The Evidence
of Some Roman Historians Reconsidered," New Testament Studies
25 (1978):93-102.
Leonhard Bertholdt, Htitorisch-kritzkche Einleitung in die sammtlichen kanoni.
rchm u. apomyphischen Schri~ten da A. und N. 2%taments, vol. 4
(1812 -1819).W
Willibald Beyschlag, New Testament T/wology, trans. Neil Buchanan,
2nd Eng. ed. (Edinburgh: T. &T. Clark, 1896). 7
Charles Bigg, T& Origins of Chri.sttini~, ed. by T. B. Strong (Oxford:
Clarendon, 1909), pp. 30,48.
Friedrich Bleek, Vodewzgen und die Apoca@pse (Berlin: 1859); and An
Introduction to th New Testament, 2nd cd., trans. William Urwick
(Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark, 1870); and Lectures on th Apoca~pse,
ed. Hossbach (1862). 3, 4, 6
48. Cited in Moses Stuart, Commentary on ttu A/wca~pse, 2 vols. (Andover: Allen,
Merrill, and Wardwell, 1845) 2:277.
32 BEFORE JERUSALEM FELL
Heinrich Bohmer, Die O~jnbarung~Amnti(Bre slau: 1866). 149
Wilhelm Bousset, Revelation ~John (Gottingen: Vandenhoeck, 1896).
Brown, Ordo Saeclorum, p. 679.50
Frederick F. Bruce, New Testament Histov (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1969), p.411. 5
Rudolf Bultmann (1976). 55
Christian Karl Josias Bunsen. 3
Cambridge Concise Bible Dictionay, editor, T& Ho~ Bible (Cambridge:
University Press, n.d.), p. 127.
W. Boyd Carpenter, Th Revelation of St. John, in vol. 8 of Charles
Ellicott, cd., Ellicott% CommentaT on the Whoie Bible (Grand Rapids:
Zondervan, rep. n.d.).
S. Cheetham, A Htitoy of tb Christian Church (London: Macmillan,
1894) , pp. 24ff.
David Chilton, Paradise Restored (Tyler, TX: Reconstruction Press,
1985); and Th Days of l%ngeance (Ft. Worth, TX: Dominion Press,
1987).
Adam Clarke, Clarke's Commentay on the Whole BibZe, vol. 6 (Nashville:
Abingdon, rep. n.d.).
William Newton Clarke, An Outline of Christian T/wology (New York:
Scribners, 1903).
Henry Cowles, l?u Revelation of St. John (New York: Appleton, 1871).
W. Gary Crampton, Biblical Hermeneutics (n. p.: by the author, 1986),
p. 42.
Berry Stewart Crebs, Th Seventh Angel (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans,
1938).
Karl August Credner, Einleitung in da Ne-uen Testaments ( 1836). 1
Samuel Davidson, Z% Doctrine af the Lust Things (1882); "The Book
of Revelation" in John Kitto, Cyclopedia of Bibltial Literature (New
York: Ivison & Phinney, 1855); An Introduction to th Study of t/w New
49. See also Bernhard Weiss, A Manual of Introduction to the New Testarnat, trans. A. J.
K. Davidson, vol. 2 (New York: Funk and Wagnalls, 1889), p. 81 n.
50. Cited in S. Cheetham, A Histoy of the Christian Church (London: Macmillan, 1894),
p. 24.
51. See statement by C. H. Dodd in Robinson (5), p. 359.
?ke Approach to the Question of Dating 33
Zlstanwnt ( 1851 ); Samed Hermeneutics (Edinburgh: 1843). 3, 6, 8
Edmund De Pressense, Th Ear~ Years of Chri.stiani~, trans. Annie
Harwood (New York: Philips and Hunt, 1879), p. 441. 1
P. S. Desprez, Tb Apoca~pse Fuljilled, 2nd ed. (London: Longman,
1855).
W. M. L. De Wette, Kur~e Erklamng hr Offmbarung (Leipzig: 1848).
3, 6,8
Friedrich Dusterdieck, Critical and Exegetical Handbook to t/w Revelation
of John, 3rd ed., trans. Henry E. Jacobs (New York: Funk and
Wagnalls, 1886).
K. A. Eckhardt, Der I%d da Johannes (Berlin: 1961 ). 5
Alfred Edersheim, Th Tmple: Its Ministry and Seroices (Grand Rapids:
Eerdmans, rep. 1972), pp. 141ff.
George Edmundson, Th Church in Rome in thz First C"entwy (London:
Longman's and Green, 1913).
Johann Gottfried Eichhom, Commentaries in Apoca~pse (Gottingen:
1791).
Erbes, Die Oflenbawzg 02s Johawws ( 1891). 1
G. H. A. Ewald, Commentaries in Apoca~pse (Gottingen: 1828). 6, 8
Frederic W. Farrar, T& Ear~ Days of Christiani~ (New York: Cassell,
1884).
Grenville O. Field, Opened Seals – Open Gates (1895).
George P. Fisher, Tb Beginnings of Christiani~ with a View to the State
of the Roman World at the Birth of Christ (New York: Scribners,
1916), pp. 534ff.
J. A. Fitzmeyer, "Review of John A. T. Robinson's Redating the New
TestanwnY (1977-78), p. 312.52
J. Massyngberde Ford, Revelation. Anchor Bible (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1975).53
52. Cited in Moule, Birth of ttw New Testament, 3rd ed. (New York: Harper & Row,
1982), p, 153.
53. Ford's view is one of the more unusual ones. She sees the book as a composition
of three distinct sections: Section 1 includes chapters 4- 11 and was written by John the
Baptist. Section 2 includes chapters 12-22, which were written by John the Baptist's
disciple. Section 3 includes chapters 1-3, which were composed sometime after A.D. 60.
34 BEFORE JERUSALEM FELL
Hermann Gebhardt, i% Docttim o~the Apocalypse, trans. John Jefferson
(Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark, 1878).
James Glasgow, %Apoca~pse Eanslated and Expounded (Edinburgh:
1872).
Robert McQueen Grant, A Historical Introduction to th New Testarmmt
(New York: Harper & Row, 1963), p. 237.
James Comper Gray, in Gray and Aaizms' Bible Comnwnta~, vol. V
(Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1903 rep. n.d.).
Samuel G. Green, A Handbook of Church HtitoU _jom tb Apostolic Era
to the Dawn of the Reformation (London: Religious Tract Society,
1904), p. 64.
Hugo Grotius, Annotations in Apoca~pse (Paris: 1644). 2, 6
Heinrich Ernst Ferdinand Guenke, Introduction to tb New Testament
(1843); and Manual of Church Histo~, trans. W. G. T. Shedd
(Boston: Halliday, 1874), p. 68. 1,3
Henry Melville Gwatkin, Ear@ Church Histou to A.D. 313, vol. 1
(London: Macmillan), p. 81.
Henry Hammond, Paraphrase and Annotation upon the N. T (London:
1653). 2
Harbuig (1780). 6
Harduin. 2
Harenberg, Erkianmg ( 1759). 1
H. G. Hartwig, A@ologie Der Apoca~pse Wider Fa.lsc/wn Tadel find
Falscha (Frieberg: 1783). 1
Karl August von Hase, A Histi-ny of the Christian Church, 7th cd., trans.
Charles E. Blumenthal and Conway P. Wing (New York: Appleston,
1878), p. 33.54
Hausrath. 1
Bernard W. Henderson, Th Lz~e and Prim-pate of the Emperor Nero
(London: Methuen, 1903).
Hentenius. 2
54. Cited in D. A. Hayes, John and Hi.r Writing (New York Methodist Book Concern,
1917), p. 246.
The Approach to the Question of Dating 35
Johann Gotti+ied von Herder, Map&v L&i: Das Buch uon der ZukunJi
des Herrn, des Neuen Testaments Siegal (Rigs: 1779). 1, 6
J. S. Herrenschneider, Tmtamen Apoca~pseos ihstrandae (Strassburg:
1786). 1
Adolf Hilgenfeld, Einleitung in da.s Newm Z?staments ( 1875). 6, 7, 8
David Hill, New Testament Prophe~ (Atlanta: John Knox, 1979), pp.
218-219.
Hitzig. 4
Heinrich Julius Holtzmann, Die Offenbamng des Johannis, in Bunsen's
Bibekoerk (Freiburg: 1891). 6
F. J. A. Hort, The Apoca@pse of St. John: 1-111, (London: Macmillan,
1908); and Judaistic Christiani~ (London: Macmillan, 1894).
John Leonhard Hug, Introdmtion to the New i%tament, trans. David
Fosdick, Jr. (Andover: Gould and Newman, 1836).
William Hurte, A Catechetical Commentay on the New Testament (St.
Louis: John Burns, 1889), pp. 502ff.55
A. Immer, Hermeneutics of the New Testament, trans. A. H. Newman
(Andover: Draper, 1890).
Theodor Keim, Rom und da-s Christenthum. 1
Theodor Koppe, Histo~ of Jesus of Nazareth, 2nd cd., trans. Arthur
Ransom (London: William and Norgate, 1883). 9
Max Krenkel, Der ApostelJohanrws (Leipzig: 1871 ).  1, 3
Johann Heinrich Kurtz, Church Histoy, 9th cd., trans. John McPherson
(3 vols. in 1) (New York: Funk and Wagnalls, 1888), pp. 41ff.
Victor Lechler, The Apostalic and Post-Apostolic Times: Their Diuersip
and Uni~ in Ltfe and Doctrine, 3rd cd., vol. 2, trans. A. J. K.
Davidson, (Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark, 1886), pp. 166ff.
Francis Nigel Lee, Revelation and Jerwalem (Brisbane, Australia, 1985).
Joseph B. Lightfoot, Biblical Essays (London: Macmillan, 1893).
Gottfried C. F. Lucke, V2rsuh eirwr vollstiindigen Einleitung in die Ofienbarung
Johannis, 2nd ed. (Bonn: 1852). 3,6, 8
Chnstoph Ernst Luthardt, Die OfjnbamngJohanni.s (Leipzig: 1861).
55. Cited in Foy E. Wallace, Jr., Zbe Book of Revelation (Nashville: by the author,
1966), p. 23.
36 BEFORE JERUSALEM FELL
James M. Macdonald, T& L~e and Writings o~flt.~ohn (London:
Hodder & Stoughton, 1877).
Frederick Denisen Maurice, Le?ctures on the Apoca@e, 2nd ed. (London:
Macmillan, 1885).
John David Michaelis, Introduction to tk New Testament, vol. 4; and
Saaed Books ~th New lhtamnt. 1
Charles Pettit M'Ilvaine, l% Evidemes of ChrLtiani~ (Philadelphia:
Smith, English & Co., 1861).
A. D. Momigliano, Cambridge Azzient Histoy ( 1934). 5
Theodor Mommsen, Roman Histoy, vol. 5. 7
Charles Herbert Morgan, et. al., Studies in the A#ostolic Church (New
York: Eaton and Mains, 1902), pp. 210ff.
C. F. D. Moule, The Birth of th New Testament, 3rd ed. (New York:
Harper & Row, 1982), p. 174.56
John Augustus Wilhelm Neander, The Histoty of th Planting and
Training of tlu Christian Church by the Apostles, trans. J. E. Ryland
(Philadelphia: James M. Campbell, 1844), pp. 223ff. 3, 6,8
Sir Isaac Newton, Obsewatiom Upon the Proph.aies of Daniel, and the
Apoca@pse ofSt. John (London: 1732). 2
Bishop Thomas Newton, Dissertation on th Prophecies (London: 1832).
2
A. Niermeyer, Over de echteid derJohanneisch.e Schrjj2en (Haag: 1852). 3)
Alfred Plummer (1891). 1
Edward Hayes Plumtree, A Popular Exposition of th Epistles to the Seven
Churches ofAsia, 2nd ed. (London: Hodder and Stoughton, 1879).
T. Randell, "Revelation" in H. D. M. Spence &Joseph S. Exell, eds.,
The Pulpit Cornmenta~, vol. 22 (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, rep.
1950).
James J. L. Ratton, The Apoca@pse of St. John (London: R. & T.
Washbourne, 1912).
Ernest Renan, L'A%echrist (Paris: 1871). 6
56. Moule's position seems to reflect a cautious subscription to the early dating of
Revelation while he is – under the influence of Robinson's analysis – moving away from
a late date advocacy: ". . neither can any part of the Apocalypse be securely given a
Domitianic date" (p. 153). "The Apocalypse maybe before A.D. 70" (p. 174).
Tie Approach to the Quextion of Dating 37
Eduard Wilhelm Eugen Reuss, Histo~ of the Sacred Scrip@res of the New
I%stament (Edinburgh: T. &T. Clark, 1884). 3,4,6
Jean Reville, Reu. d. d. Mondes (Oct., 1863 and Dec., 1873). 357
J. W. Roberts, Th Revelation to John (Austin, TX: Sweet, 1974).
Edward Robinson, Bibliotheca Smra, vol. 3 (1843), pp. 532ff.
John A. T. Robinson, Redating the New I%tament (Philadelphia: Westminster,
1976).
J. Stuart Russell, The Parou.sia (Grand Rapids: Baker, 1887 1983).
W. Sanday (1908).58
Philip Schaff, H&toy of the Christian Church, 3rd cd., vol. 1: Apostolic
Christian@ (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1910 1950), p. 834.
Johann Friedrich Schleusner.59
J. H. Scholten, de ApostelJohannti in Klein Azie (Leiden: 1871). 1
Albert Schwegler, Da Nachapostol Zeitalter (1846). 3
J. J. Scott, The Apoca~pse, or Revelation of S. John the Divim (London:
John Murray, 1909).
Edward Condon Selwyn, Th Christian Prophets and the Apoca~pse
(Cambridge: 1900); and The Authorship of the Apoca@pse (1900).
Henry C. Sheldon, The Ear@ Church, vol. 1 of Histoy of the Christian
Church (New York: Thomas Y. Crowell, 1894), pp. 112ff.
William Henry Simcox, The Revelation of St. John Divine. The Cambridge
Bible for Schools and Colleges (Cambridge: Cambridge
University, 1893).
D. Moody Smith, "A Review of John A. T. Robinson's Redating tk
New Estament," Duke Divinip School Review 42 (1977): 193-205.
Arthur Penrhyn Stanley, SermorLS and Essays on the Apostolic Age (3rd
ed: Oxford and London: 1874), pp. 234ff. 6
Rudolf Ewald Stier ( 1869). 3
Augustus H. Strong, Systematic 77wologY (Old Tappan, NJ: Revell,
1907 1970, p. 1010).
57. For source documentation see Milligan, Apoca~@e, p. 142.
58. Cited in Hort, Apoca~pse, p. iv.
59. Cited in P. S. Desprez, The ApocaJ@se Ful@lled, 2nd ed. (London: Longman,
Brown, Green, Longmans, 1855), p. 2.
38 BEFORE JERUSALEM FELL
Moses Stuart, Comrmmta~ on the Apoca~pse, 2 vols. (Andover: Allen,
Mornll, and Wardwell, 1845).
Swegler. 1
Milton S. Terry, Biblical ?+ermeneutics (Grand Rapids: Zondervan,
n.d. rep. 1974), p. 467.
Thiersch, Die Kirche im apostolischm Zeitalter.  1
Friedrich August Gottreu Tholuck, CommentaV on the Gospel of John
(1827). 1
Tillich, Introduction to tb N&o 7Mament.  1
Charles Cutler Torrey, Docwmmts of the Primitive Church, (ch. 5); and
The Apoca~pse ofJohn (New Haven: Yale, 1958).
Cornelis Vanderwaal, Hal Lina!wy and Biblical Prophq (St. Catharine's,
Ontario: Paideia, 1978); and Search the Scriptures, vol. 10
(St. Cathannes, Ontario: Paideia, 1979).
Gustav Volkmar, Conmentur zur 0fien4anmg (Zurich: 1862). 3
Foy E. Wallace, Jr., The Book of Revelation (Nashville: by the author,
1966) .
Arthur Weigall, Nero: Emperor of Rome (London: Thornton Butterworth,
1930).
Bernhard Weiss, A Commenta~ on th New Testament, 2nd cd., trans. G.
H. Schodde and E. Wilson (NY: Funk and Wagnalls, 1906), vol. 4.
Brooke Foss Westcott, Th Gospel According to St. John (Grand Rapids:
Eerdmans, 1882 1954).
J. J. Wetstein, New I%starrwzt Graecum, vol. 2 (Amsterdam: 1752).
Karl Wieseler, Zur Au.degung und Kritik der Apok. Literatur (Gottingen:
1839).60
Charles Wordsworth, Th N2w Testament, vol. 2 (London: 1864).
Herbert B. Workman, Persecution in tb Ear~ Church (London: Ofiord,
1906 1980).
Robert Young, C'ommentaV on tb Book of Revelation (1885); and Cotie
Critical Comments on the Ho& Bible (London: Pickering & Inglis,
n.d.), p. 179.
C. F. J. Zullig, Die Ofienbamng Joharmti erklarten (Stuttgart: 1852). 3,
6
60. Cited in Hayes, John, p. 246
PART n
THE EXTERNAL
EVIDENCE
3
INTRODUCTION TO THE
EXTERNAL EVIDENCE
The actual defense of the early date of Revelation will be begun
by initially considering the external evidence. This species of evidence
is greatly stressed by late date advocates and is generally conceded
on all sides to be their strongest argument. Indeed, F. J. A. Hort even
states in regard to the evidence for a late date: "This is virtually
external only. " 1 Though this undoubtedly is an overstatement,2 the
fact remains that late date advocates do make much of the external
evidence. For instance, J. P. M. Sweet's comment is illustrative in
this regard: "To sum up, the earlier date may be right, but the internal
evidence is not sufilcient to outweigh the firm tradition stemming
from Irenaeus."3 Similarly, Feuillet writes: "The traditional setting of
the Apocalypse in the reign of Domitian is too solidly established to
be brought into question."4
John's Banishment
The evidence from tradition regarding the date of Revelation is
almost invariably considered in conjunction with the question of the
1. F. J. A. Hort, % Apocalypse of St. John: 1-111 (London: Macmillan, 1980), p. xiv.
2. This may have been closer to an accurate assessment in Hort's era, but today it
seems much too bold a statement. Indeed, Leon Morris in his (admittedly non-technical,
though excellent) commentary on Revelation allows only a passing reference to Irenaeus
(and the entire external evidence!) in one ftmtnote, when discussing the date (The
Revelatwn of St. John Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1969, p. 34, n. 5). This is, however,
most unusual for modem treatments.
3, J. P. M. Sweet, Revelation. Westminster Pelican Commentaries (Philadelphia:
Westminster, 1979), p. 27.
4. Andre Feuillet, The Apoca~pse (Staten Island: Alba House, 1965), p. 92. See also
Peake: "In deference to our earliest evidence, the statement of Irenaeus, the Book was
generally considered to belong to the close of Domitian's reign ." (Arthur S. Peake,
The Revelation ofJohn London: Joseph Johnson, 1919, p. 70).
41
42 BEFORE JERUSALEM FELL
date of John's banishment to the island of Patmos. Interestingly,
there have been several able scholars who have denied that John was
banishai to Patmos. For instance, Terry holds that John was simply
retreating to Patmos to preach the gospel. He suggests three evidences
for this interpretation:5 (1) The Greek preposition 616 could
mean "for the sake ofl" i.e. John had gone to Patmos "for the sake of
receiving the Word of God. " (2) The references to "tribulation" and
"patience," he argues, do not necessarily relate to the reason for his
being at Patmos. (3) The preposition 616 is used in this sense in
several places in Revelation (cf 2:3; 4:11; 12:11; 13:14; 18:10, 15;
20:4). Peake noted that this was the view of Friednch Bleek, Eduard
W. E. Reuss, Adolf Harnack, and Wilhelm Bousset.6 Reuss even
goes so far as to say: "The exile of the Apostle John to Patmos . . .
is itself only a fable derived from a false interpretation of 1:9 (in which
very passage pczpvpiov is not martyrdom but preaching)."7 More
recently, Newman suggests the possibility that John's sojourn there
"was likely nothing more than 'protective custody,' if indeed that
much."8
Despite such vigorous protestations against the notion of a banishment,
the fact of John's banishment seems indisputably clear to
the candid mind. In Revelation 1:9 John speaks of his being in "the
tribulation" (Gk: /v q~ f32i@s~) with the saints; and the traumatic
content of much of his book would support this conclusion. In
addition, it is difficult to conceive of the 6z6 being applied to a future
purpose, i.e. that John went there with the view to preaching the
Gospel. Then, too, we must ask why he chose the barren, virtually
deserted island of Patmos to do so? Furthermore, despite disagreements
as to the tine of John's banishment, there is virtual harmony
in antiquity as to the fact of his banishment.g
5. Milton S. Terry, Biblical Herrnmtics (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, rep. 1974), p.
239.
6. Peake, Revelation, p. 2 15n.
7. Eduard Wilhelm Eugen Reuss, Htitory of the Sawed Scriptures of the New Testarmmt
(Edinburgh: T. &T. Clark, 1884), p. 161.
8. Barclay Newman, "The Fallacy of the Domitian Hypothesis. Critique of the
Irenaeus Source as a Witness for the Contemprary-Historical Approach to the Interpretation
of the Apoedypse," New Testament Studtis 10 (1962-63):138.
9. See Frederick W. Farrar, The Ear~ Days of ChrihzniU (New York Cassell, 1884),
pp. 386-387. Cf. Epiphanies, Hernia 51:33; Irenaeus, Agaimt Hersrra 5:30:3; Tertullian,
On the Excluion of Heretti 36; Eusebius, Ecclesikdical Hi.rtory 3:18; 20:23; Clement of
Introduction to the External Evidence 43
The Role of Tradition
In order to demonstrate the weight credited the church fathers
by late date advocates, we will cite the introductory assertions of
several competent late date theorists. Following these citations we
will provide a survey of the evidence, such as it is.
Henry B. Swete insists that "early Christian tradition is almost
unanimous in assigning the Apocalypse to the last years of Domitian.
" 10 In his monumental commentary on Revelation, R. H.
Charles introduces the external evidence as follows: "This evidence
almost unanimously assigns Revelation to the last years of Domitian."
 1 Donald Guthrie follows the lead of Swete, Charles, and others
– albeit, in somewhat more cautious tones – when he asserts that
"undoubtedly a strong argument in favour of a Domitianic date is the
fact that the earliest and the weightiest external witnesses attest it." 12
Often (thoug-h b.y no means always) it is the case that the internal
evidence employed by late date advocates is essentially used in a
negative sense to rebut early date arguments, rather than being
employed positively to establish the late date. The external evidence
is quite important to late date advocacy. The authorities invariably
cited by these scholars, and virtually all late date advocates, are:
Irenaeus, Clement of Alexandria, Origen, Victorious, Eusebius, and
Jerome.L3
Alexandria, Who as the Rich Man that shall be Saved? 42; Jerome, Lives 4 Ilia.rh"oas Mea 9;
Sulpicius Severus, Sacred HtstoU 2:3 1; Theophylac~ and the Syriac Revelation.
10. Henry Barclay Swete, CornmmtaU on Rezdation (Grand Rapids: Kregel, 1906
1977) pp. xcix ff.
11. R. H. Charles, The Revelation of St. John, 2 VOIS. International Critical Commentary
(Edinburgh: T. &T. Clark, 1920) 1 :xci.
12. Donald Guthrie, New Testament Introduction, 3rd ed. (Downers Grove, IL: Inter-
Varsity Press, 1970) p. 956.
13. See for example: Swete, Revelation, p. c.; Charles, Revelaticm 1 :xciii; Robert H.
Mounce, T/u Book of Revelation. New International Commentary on the New Testament
(Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1977), p. 32; James Moffatt, The Revelation of St. John the
Diviru, in W. R. Nicoll, cd., Englishman's Greek Tedarrumt, vol. 5 (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans,
rep. 1980), p. 320; Albert Barnes, Bamzs' Notes on the New Tedarnent, 1 vol. ed.
(Grand Rapids: Kregel, rep. 1962), pp. 1531ff.; B. B. Warfield, "Revelation," in Philip
SchatT, cd., A Religious En@opedta: Or Dictionay of Bibkcal, Historical, Doctrinal, and
Practczal 7%eolo~ (New York Funk and Wagnalls, 1883) 3:2035; Henry C. Thiessen,
Introduction to the New T@tarnent (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1943), pp. 317ff.; Guthrie,
Introduction, pp. 956-957; John F. Walvoord, The Revelation ofJem Christ (Chicago: Moody
Press, 1966), pp. 13ff.; Merrill C. Tenney, "Revelation, Book of" in Merrill C. Tenney,
cd., Zondervan Ptctorial Btble Dictiona~ (Grand Rapids: Zondeman, 1967), p. 721.
44 BEFORE JERUSALEM FELL
Yet, despite a confident use of these witnesses by late date
proponents, we will demonstrate that a careful scrutiny of the material
reveals that the evidence is too diverse to lead to any assured
conclusion as to this date. Moses Stuart (who late date advocate
James Moffatt claims provided one of only two pre-Alford works that
"retain any critical value" regarding Revelation) 14 states well the
situation regarding John's banishment, and thus of the date of Revelation,
when he writes: "Beyond the testimony ofJohn himsel~ there
is such a diversity of views, as serves to show that mere floating
reports and surmises were the basis of the views. Were not this the
case, how could there have been so great a variety of opinions about
a simple matter of fact?'15
Although our primary concern will be to provide an analytical
inquiry into the late date evidence from Irenaeus and Clement of
Alexandria, a survey of evidence from other early church fathers will
round out the evaluation of the external evidence. The evidence
provided in Part II of the present work is presented with a view to
demonstrating that: (1) Much of the late date external evidence is,
in fact, inconclusive at best. (2) There is some noteworthy early
evidence for a Neronic banishment ofJohn and a pre-A.D. 70 writing
of Revelation.
William Henry Simcox states that "there are statements in early
Christian writers which seem to show that the tradition on this point
was not absolutely unanimous. " 16 The generally accepted dates-from
a few of the notable witnesses yield a wide range of diverse conclusions,
including a pre-Vespasianic date (Epiphanies, Theophylact,
the Syriac Revelation manuscripts), a Domitianic date (Irenaeus,
Jerome, Eusebius, Sulpicius Severus, Victorious), and a Trajanic
date (Dorotheus). But beyond these few church fathers there are
other historical ~tnesses, as well.
Let us, then, begin our inquiry into the various ancient sources
that lend themselves to the debate. Following separate treatments of
Irenaeus and Clement of Alexandria, the remaining survey will cover
the additional evidence in chronological succession.
14. Moffatt, Rtwfutim, p. 333.
15, Moses Stuart, Commentay on th Apoca~pse, 2 VOIS. (Andover: Allen, Mot-s-ill, and
Wardwell, 1845) 1:271.
16. WNiam Henry Simcox, T7ie Rewlation of St. John Divvz. The Cambridge Bible for
Schools and Colleges (Cambridge University Press, 1898), p. xiii.
4
IRENAEUS, BISHOP OF LYONS
As we begin consideration of the external evidence, the obvious
starting point is with Irenaeus, Bishop of Lyons. Irenaeus is considered
to be the most important witness and deserves initial consideration
for several reasons. First, he speaks directly (it seems) to the
issue at hand. Guthrie writes that Irenaeus "is quite specific that the
Apocalypse 'was seen no such long time ago, but alm~st in our own
generation, at the end of the rei~ of Domitian.'"1 Second, he is an
indisputably important church father whose very stature demands
his hearing. Irenaeus's dates are A.D. 130-202. Third, he wrote the
very work in question around A.D. 180 to 190,2 just a little over a
century after the destruction of the Temple (the era significant to early
date advocacy) and almost a century after Domitian's reign (the era
significant to late date advocacy). As Henderson observes, Irenaeus
is "the earliest extant authority" designating a date for the writing of
Revelation.3 Fourth, he claims to have known Polycarp,4 who in turn
1. Donald Guthne, New Testament hztrodwtim, 3rd ed. (Downers Grove, IL: Inter-
Varsity Press, 1970), p. 956.
2. Late date advocate Arthur S. Peake writes: "Irenaeus wrote his great work about
A.D. 180-190" (T/u Revelation of John London: Joseph Johnson, 1919 p, 72 in). Most
classical, historical, and New Testament scholars a~ee. See for example, Henderson,
Nero, p. 442; Moses Stuart, Comnsntmy m tb Apoca~@e, 2 vols. (Andover: Allen, Merrill,
and Wardwell, 1845) 1 :281; John A. T. Robinson, Redattng the New Testament (Philadelphia
Westminster, 1976), p. 221; W. H. C. Frend, The Riw of Chri.rtiani~ (Philadelphia
Fortress, 1984), p. 921.
3. B. W. Henderson, The L.zfe and Principati of the Em@or Nero (London: Methuen,
1903), p. 442,
4. See Againrt Heresies 3:3:4: "But Polycarp also was not only instructed by apostles,
and conversed with many who had seen Christ, but was also, by apostles in Asia,
appointed bishop of the Church in Smyma whom I also saw in my earlY youth"
(Alexander Roberts and James Donaldson, eds., T/u Ante=Nicsnz Fathzrs ANF, 10 vols.
Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, (late 19th c.) 1975 1:416).
45
46 BEFORE JERUSALEM FELL
may have known the Apostle John,5 the writer of Revelation.
Thus, with regard to the external evidence, the tendency of late
date advocates to rely heavily on Irenaeus is not unreasonable. Such
a dependence is clearly indicated in Peake's commentary: "In deference
to our earliest evidence, the statement of Irenaeus, the Book
was generally considered to belong to the close of Domitian's reign."6
Terry observes that "Ellicott, Hengstenberg, Lange, Alford, and
Whedan contend strongly that the testimony of Irenaeus and the
ancient tradition ought b control the question." 7
Undoubtedly, Irenaeus's observation is the strongest weapon in
the late date *. Certainly, "the chief obstacle to the acceptance
of the true date of the Apocalypse, arises from the authority of
Irenaeus."8 Irenaeus is an "obstacle" who cannot be overlooked by
the early date school.
The evidence from Irenaeus that is deemed so compelling is
found in Book 5 of his Against Heresies (at 5:30:3). Although originally
composed in Greek, today this work exists in its entirety only in Latin
translation. Thankfully, however, the particular statement in question
is presemed for us in the original Greek in Eusebius's Ecclesiastical
Hi.stoy at 3:18:3 (see also 5:8:6):
This crucial statement occurs at the end of a section in which
Irenaeus is dealing with the identification of "666" in Revelation 13.
That statement, along with its larger context, is generally translated:
We will not, however, incur the risk of pronouncing positively as to
the name of Antichrist; for if it were necessary that his name should
be distinctly revealed in this present time, it would have been an-
5. See the almost universal testimony to the Johannine discipleship of Polycarp in
Irenaeus, Against Heretis 2:3; Eusebius, Ecclesiastical Histq 5:20; 3:36; Jerome, Chronklq
Concwning Illush"ous Men 17; Suidas; and Tem.dlian, On th Exclwion of Heretics 32.
6. Peake, Reuelatian, p. 70.
7. Milton S. Terry, Biblical Hetrrwrwu tics (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, rep. 1974), p.
241 n. Emphasis mine.
8. Frederick W. Farrar, T/u Ear~ Days of Chri.stiani~ (New York Cassell, 1884), p.
407.
Irenaas, Btihop of Lyons 47
nounced by him who beheld the apocalyptic vision. For that was seen
no very long time since, but almost in our day, towards the end of
Domitian's reign.g
The ~tipddq ("that was seen") is commonly considered to refer
back to the immediately preceding noun, ckroKclduyJzg ("Revelation"
or "apocalyptic vision"), in the preceding sentence. Irenaeus is affirming,
it is argued, that John "saw" (i.e., received by vision) the
prophecies of Revelation at a time * the late date theory of
composition: "no such long time ago," "almost in our own generation,"
and, more precisely, "at the end of the reign of Domitian."
As the external evidence section of the present study is developed,
additional ancient historical witnesses will be considered. But the
importance of this evidence found in Irenaeus's work is universally
recognized and demands careful and lengthy consideration. How
shall early date advocates deal with such strong and forthright testimony
by this noteworthy ancient church father? As a matter of fact,
there are several considerations that tend to reduce the usefulness of
Irenaeus for late date advocacy. These will be brought forward in
some detail.
The Translational Problem
Certainly the two initial considerations in any judgment regarding
the interpretation of a crucial documentary witness are those of
textual certainty and translational accuracy. In that there are no
crucial questions regarding the integrity of the text of Irenaeus's
statement raised from either camp in the debate, we can move
directly to consideration of the matter of translational accuracy.
On the matter of translation there has been a good deal of debate
on various aspects of the statement in question. In fact, "this translation
has been disputed by a number of scholars." 10 According to
Peake and Farrar the problem of translational accuracy was first
broached by J. J. Wetstein in 1751. 1 We should note at the outset,
however, that most scholars doubt there is a problem of translation.
For instance, Robinson (an early date advocate) speaks of the alleged
9. ANF 1:559-560.
10. Robinson, Redating, p. 221.
11. Farrar, Ear~ Days, p. 44)8; Peake, Revelation, p. 73.
48 BEFORE JERUSALEM FELL
translational problem as "very dubious." 12 Moffatt (a vigorous late
date advocate) discounts the supposed problem with just one sentence,
stating that the proposed revisions are "ingenious but quite
unconvincing. " 13 According to Barnes, Chapman "is frankly contemptuous"
against the proposed reconstruction of Irenaeus.'4 There
are, however, a number of noted scholars who have disputed various
parts of the common translation. Among these are J. J. Wetstein,
M. J. Bovan, S. H. Chase, E. Bohmer, James M. Macdonald, Henry
Hammond, F. J. A. Hort, Edward C. Selwyn, George Edmundson,
Arthur S. Barnes, and J. J. Scott. 15
Three of the major problems with the generally accepted translation
will be dealt with below: (1) The referent of &opc@s ("was
seen"). (2) The significance of the time reference: OW yelp IZpO
noflofi ~c5vov &.)pcWq, &U& c@dv km' zijg rjpsrkpa< y&v@
("no long time ago was it seen, but almost in our own time"). (3)
The overall internal confusion in Irenaeus suggested by the incompatibility
of Irenaeus's statements on Revelation. 16
Indisputably, the most serious potential objection to the common
translation has to do with the understanding of &upcMq, "was seen. "
What is the subject of this verb? Is it "him who saw the Apocalypse"
12. Robinson, Redating, p. 221.
13. James Moffatt, The Revelatwn of St. John the Divine, in W. R. Nicoll, cd., Englishman's
Greek Z2darnent, vol. 5 (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, rep. 1980), p. 319.
14. Arthur Stapylton Barnes, Christiani~ at Rome in & Apostolti Age (Westport, CT
Greenwood, 1938 1971 ), p. 167n.
15. J. J. Wetstein, Nouurn Testarmmtum Graecum, vol. 2 ( 1751), p. 746. M. J. Bovan, Revue
de Thologie et de Phikmophti (Lausanne: 1887). S. H. Chase, "The Date of the Apocalypse
The Evidence of Irenaeus," Journal of Thedogizal Studies 8 (1907): 431-434. Hort noted the
significance of this articlq see Henry Barclay Swete, hmnenta~ on Revelation (Grand
Rapids: Kregel, 1906 1977), p. cvi. E. Bohmer, Uber Urfm$er und Abfasungszeit des
Apoka~pse, pp. 30tY; cited in Moffatt, Revelation, p. 505. James M. Macdonald, The Lzji
and Writings of St. John (London: Hodder & Stoughton, 1877), pp. 169ff. Henry Hammond,
A Paraphrase and Annotations Upon thz New Totarnent, 4th ed. (London: 1653), p.
857; cited in Peake, Revelation, p. 74n. Edward C. Selwyn, 77u Christian ProphetJ ad the
Prophetic Apoca~pse (London: Macmillan, 1900). George Edmundson, The Church in Rome
sn the Fird Cm.tuU (London: Longmans, Green, 1913). Barnes, C/srsNianity at Rime, pp.
167ff. Barnes cites also Sanday, from his Preface to F. J. A. Hort, The Apoca~pse of St.
John: I-III, and Hilgenfeld as adherents to this view. J. J. Scott, The Apouz~pse, or Reoelution
of S. John the Diuine (London: John Murray, 1909), p. 154.
16. There is another area where some scholars have deemed there to be a problem
with the common interpretation of Irenaeus's statement. Taking the lead of Guericke, a
Irenaeus, Bishop of Lyn.s 49
(i.e., John) or "the Apocalypse"? Which of these two antecedents
"was seen" "almost" in Irenaeus's time and near "the end of the reign
of Domitian"? Swete records for us a significant observation from
master expositor F. J. A. Hort: "Dr. Hort, it appears, in his lectures
on the Apocalypse referred to an article by M. J. Bovan in the Revue
de Theologie et de Philosophti (Lausanne, 1887), in which it was suggested
that the subject of&opa@ in Iren. v. 30.3 is not rj &IoKcLhxpzc
but d njv &ioKciJvyw $opaK6ro<, i.e. d Tcobwq<.'"7 Such is all
the more significant when we consider the observations of the first
English translators of Irenaeus:
The great work of Irenaeus, now for the first time translated into
English, is utiortunately no longer extant in the original. It has come
down to us only in an ancient Latin version, with the exception of the
greater part of the first book, which has been preserved in the original
Greek, through means of copious quotations made by Hippolytus and
Epiphanies. The text, both Latin and Greek, is often most uncertain.
. . .
Irenaeus, even in the original Greek, is often a very obscure writer.
At times he expresses himself with remarkable clearness and terseness;
but, upon the whole, his style is very involved and prolix.8
few expositors have called into question the proper understanding of Irenaeus's Aop.
mavo6. Guericke is bothered by the absence of the definite article beforeAopsrmvoO.
Stuart relates his argument thus: "Guericke suggests, that when Irenaeus says, 'the
Apocalypse was seen not long ago, but almost in our generation, rrp~~ @ z41s~ rq<
Aop.mmJo6 cipx~g,' that the adjective Aopxzavofi, (for a~ective it may be, and if so, it
is one which is getwrh communis, and not the proper name of Domitian), belongs, in
accordance with the Greek formation, to the name Domitiw, and not to Domitian which
would make an adjective of the form Aopmam& If it were a proper name, he says it
should be written TOO AOpETZChOV. Now Nero's name was Domitiw Nero, and not
Domitianus, which is the name of the later emperor'' (Stuart, Apoca~@e 1 :282 -283n). If
such a re-interpretation of the phrase is permissible, and if we interpret the first portion
of the sentence from Irenaeus along the common lines, then this would make Irenaeus
testi@ that the Apocalypse was written near the end of the reign of Nero.
This particular approach to the Domitian identity is very rarely held even among
convinced early date advocates. Farrar says that "no scholar will accept this hypothesis"
(Farrar, Ear~ Days, p. 407). (This must be an overstatement, since Guericke was a
reputable scholar.) Stuart doubts its validity, as did Macdonald. Not cmlY does it S.eem
abundantly clear that Irenaeus intended the Emperor Domitian by this reference, but
the argument above is much stronger, more widely held, and to be prefemed.
17. Swete, Revelation, p. cvi. Although it should be noted that Swete comments that
Hort did not accept Bovan's argument calling for such a re-interpretation of Irenaeus.
18. ANF 1:311-312. The translation and introductory remarks were by Alexander
Roberts and W. H. Rambaut, according to the first edition of the translation: 7?u Witirzg$
o~Zreruzeus, vol. 1 (Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark, 1880).
50 BEFORE JERUSALEM FELL
S. H. Chase, the writer of one of the most persuasive and comprehensive
articles on this matter, heard Hort's May, 1889, lecture and
recorded some of that very lecture:
My note is as follows . . . : – 'The passage of Irenaeus is urged
against dating the Apocalypse shortly after Nero's death. A suggestion,
however, has been made in a French periodical: it is a question of the
interpretation of Irenaeus. The writer raised the question whether
Irenaeus means to say that the Apocalypse itself belongs to Domitian's
reign. What is the subject of .40pa0q? He or it? For the latter note the
phrase just used i.e. T05 Kaz' rr)v ChTOK&@JW ~opcrK6zo<. But there
is the fact that the language of Irenaeus is difiicult on this i.e. the
common theory. Why yap? But if Irenaeus meant that he, John, was
seen, this is in accordance with his favourite phraseology.'19
For Hort, the ydp ("for") in Irenaeus's statement is syntactically
difllcult to account for unless it makes reference back to the main idea
of the preceding statement: "it the name of the Beast would have been
spoken @ him." Chase notes that Irenaeus is fond of yhp in such
contexts, which lends support to the re-interpretation of Irenaeus at
this point .20 Hort also recognizes the general tendency of Irenaeus
to use dpckw with persons, rather than of visions or things (such as
a book, as here, i.e. Revelation). For as Swete comments of Hort's
position: "he admitted 'the difficulty of accounting for yc@ on the
common interpretation, and the force of the argument from the use
of dpbo.'"z'
Chase moves beyond the purely grammatical ambiguity relative
to syntactical structure to the actual thematic flow of the passage
cited:
The logic of the sentences seems to me to require this interpretation.
The statement that the vision was seen at the close of Domitian's reign
supplies no reason why the mysterious numbers should have been
expounded "by him who saw the apocalypse," had he judged such
an exposition needful. If, on the other hand, we refer ;mpaeq to St
John, the meaning is plain and simple. We may expand the sentences
thus: "Had it been needful that the explanation of the name should
be proclaimed to the men of our own day, that explanation would
19. S. H. Chase, "The Date of the Apocalypse," Journal @%ological Studtis 8 ( 1907):43 1.
20. Zbid., p. 432. He cites sections from Irenaeus (2:22:5; 3:3:3; 3:3:4) indicating
Irenaeus's usage.
21. Swete, Revekztwn, p. cvi.
Irenaeus, Bishop of Lyons 51
have been given by the author of the Book. For the author was seen
on earth, he lived and held converse with his disciples, not so very
long ago, but almost in our own generation. Thus, on the one hand,
he lived years after he wrote the Book, and there was abundant
opportunity for him to expound the riddle, had he wished to do so;
and, on the other hand, since he lived on almost into our generation,
the explanation, had he given it, must have been preserved to US."22
Chase's observations are quite perceptive. Upon recognizing the
ambiguity of the passage when narrowly conceived in terms of purely
grammatico-syntactical analysis, he then proceeds upon sound hermeneutic
principle to elucidate Irenaeus's precise point by consideration
of the contextual flow.
This sort of argumentation is why Wetstein, too, understood
'~ohn" (which immediately preceding the verb becomes "him who
saw the apocalypse") to be the nominative of &Jpa6q, rather than
"Revelation."23 Macdonald agrees, and states the case dogmatically:
Irenaeus argues that if this knowledge i.e., regarding the identity
of 666 had been important at that time it would have been communicated
by the writer of the Apocalypse, who lived so near their own
time. . . . There was therefore really no ambiguity to be avoided,
requiring him to use the name ofJohn or the personal pronoun as the
subject of &#3q, the verb of sight. The scope requires this nominative
and no other.24
But there is still more to the contextual argument. In his Ecclesiastical
Histou (5:8:5,6) Eusebius again cites Irenaeus's statement (Against
Heresies 5:30:3), this time with more of the context (Against Heresies
5:30:1):
He states these things in the third book of his above-mentioned work.
In the fifth book he speaks as follows concerning the Apocalypse of
John, and the number of the name of Antichrist "As these things are
so, and this number is found in all the approved and ancient copies,
and those who saw John face to face confirm it, and reason teaches
us that the number of the name of the beast, according to the mode
22. Chase, "Date," pp. 431-432.
23. See James M. Macdonald, Th Ltj2 and Writings ~ St. Jolm (London: Hodder &
Stoughton, 1877), p. 170. He also noted that Guericke once held this view, but later
retracted it. See also Stuart, Apoca@pse 2:265.
24. Macdonald, Lye and Writings, p. 169.
52 BEFORE JERUSALEM FELL
of calculation among the Greeks, appears in its letters. . . ." And
farther on he says concerning the same: "We are not bold enough to
speak confidently of the name of Antichrist. For if it were necessary
that his name should be declared clearly at the present time, it would
have been announced by who saw the revelation. For it was seen, not
long ago, but almost in our generation, toward the end of the reign
of Domitian."25
Notice should be made of the personal knowledge that is emphasized
by Irenaeus: "those who have seen John face to face testifj." It
rather clearly seems that the .bptieq ("was seen") of the latter
quotation (the very one under consideration) is but the dim reflection
of the former quotation's more precise statement: papwpotivmv
czdz~v kK&ikw TC3V Ka~4 dynv dv 'Io&wqv $opaK6zav ("those
who have seen John face to face testifj"). In fact, the very verb in
question (d@o, at Herewk 5:30:3) appears in this immediate context
(in Agaimt Hereszks 5:30:1 ) employed of John himself 'Ititiwqv
topaK&ciw.26 Furthermore, "this interpretation is in harmony
with the characteristic thought and phraseology of Irenaeus. "27 By
this is meant that Irenaeus constantly emphasizes the organic and
living unity of the Church's life. Irenaeus shows a concern to demonstrate
carefully that one Christian generation is in touch with the
next generation since the time of the apostles. "The men of one
generation heard from the lips of the men of the previous generation
what they themselves had heard and seen. "28 We must recognize
that Irenaeus's work sought to demonstrate that "the same gospel
which was first orally preached and transmitted was subsequently
committed to writing and faithfully preserved in all the apostolic
churches through the regular succession of the bishops and elders. "29
In the 1913 Bampton Lectures at the University of Oxford,
George Edmundson offered his analysis of the problem, which is
25. Eusebius, 5:8:5-6. Cited fmm Philip Schaff and Henry Waee, eds., A Select Libraty
of Nicttu and Post-Nicsme Faths of the Christuzn Church: Second Se&s, 14 vols. (Grand Rapids:
Eerdmans, 1890 1986) 1:222.
26. Macdonald, Life and Writings, p. 169.
27. Chase, "Date," p. 432.
28. Ibid., p. 433. He cites references from Irenaeus's work at 3:3:3; 427:1; 5:30:1; and
even fragments of a letter preserved in Eusebius's work at 5:20.
29. Philip Schaff, M.sto~ of t/u Christian Church, 8 vols. (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans,
1910 1950) 2:753. Cp. F. F. Bruce, New Tat-t Htitory (Garden City, NY Anchor
Books, 1969), p. 405.
along the lines of Chase's:
Irenaeus, Bishop of Lpns
But surely this rendering i.e., the common rendering of Irenaeus is
wrong. It should be "for he (St. John the writer) was seen . . . almost
in our generation toward the end of the reign of Domitian." It is of
the Seer and his ability to declare the name of Antichrist that Irenaeus
is speaking. The misunderstanding about the meaning of the passage
is largely due to Eusebius, who after a reference to Domitian's persecution
proceeds "in this (persecution) report he tihns that the
Apostle and Evangelist John, who was still living, in consequence of
his testimony to the divine word was condemned to dwell on the
island of Patmos," and then he quotes Irenaeus in support of his
statement.30
Edmundson feels that Eusebius imparted this wrong historical data
as a result of reading too much into Origen's comments on Matthew
20:22. That is, apparently Eusebius merely assumed that John was
exiled to Patmos under Domitian, based on Origen's obscure comment.
3' Edmundson thus surmised that this led Eusebius astray in
his historical arrangement of the data at this point.
A further reaso~ for Irenaeus's emphasis is that "to say of one 'he
was seen,' meaning thereby he was still alive at a certain time, might
seem unusual, whether in Greek or English, as applied to an ordinary
man. When we consider, however, how much would be thought of
seeing this most aged apostle who had seen the Lord, there is nothing
unnatural in the use of such an expression. In fact this verb is applied
to him in precisely the same sense in the be~nning of the chapter."32
The evidence rehearsed above has not convinced everyone. Even
early date advocates such as Hort, Stuart, Guericke, and Robinson33
fail to endorse such a re-interpretation of Irenaeus. Stuart dismisses
30. Edmundson, Church in Rorrw, pp. 164-165. His reference to Eusebius is to his
Ecclm"astical Histoiy 3:23:1.
31. We will consider this statement from Ongen later in this part of our work. It
should be noted here, however, that Origen does not mention the name "Domitian" in
his statement. Simcox suggests that Irenaeus may have merely assumed Domitian used
banishment more than Nero (William Henry Simcox, The Revelatwrs of St. Jo/m the Divmz.
The Cambridge Bible for Schools and Colleges Cambridge University Press, 1898, p.
xl) .
32. Macdonald, L@ and ?+'ritirsg$, pp. 169-170.
33. On Hort's position, see Swete, Raelatwn, p. cvi. Stuart, Apoca(@e 1:265, writes:
"And although the /uorat/zz, in the passage of Irenaeus . has been differently interpreted
by different critics (e. g. the ancient translator of Irenaeus renders it vi.rum ed, viz.
the beas+ Wetstein applies the verb to John himselfj Storr, to the name of the beast), yet
54 BEFORE JERUSALEM FELL
the re-interpretation on the grounds that "the ancients clearly understood
the matter" along the lines of the common interpretation.34
Robinson points out two problems that appear to him to be fatal to
the re-interpretation of Irenaeus. 35 The first is that the Latin translation
of Irenaeus stands against it by its use of viswn (which better
suggests a thing, such as a book), instead of visa (which is more
suggestive of a person). This argument is closely related to Stuart's.
The second is that Irenaeus twice elsewhere says John lived to
Trajan's reign, not just to Domitian's.36 If Irenaeus is to be reinterpreted
here along the lines of Chase and others then there would
seem to be some confusion in Irenaeus's record.
In response to these three objections, we offer the following
explanations. First, regarding Stuart's statement that the early fathers
seemed to have understood him in terms of the common interpretation,
it should be noted that although many ancient fathers
employed Irenaeus with high regard, they do not seem to have
regarded him as a final authority. For instance, contrary to Irenaeus,
Tertullian placed John's banishment after his being dipped in a
cauldron of burning oil, which Jerome says was in Nero's reign.37
Photus preserved extracts of "Life of Timotheus" in which he states
that John's banishment was under Nero. Others who record a pre-
Domitianic date for John's banishment include: Epiphanies (Hewsie$
51:12, 33), Arethas (Revelatwn 7:1-8), the Syriac versions of Revelation,
Hi.rto~ ofJohn, th Son of Zebedee, and Theophylact (John). Though
Eusebius quotes Irenaeus as proof of the date to which John lived
(i.e., into the reign of Trajan),38 he disagrees with Irenaeus as to the
Johannine authorship of Revelation. 39 In light of all this "We cannot
I cannot think that any other Nominative than 'Anomi@s~ can be fairly supplied
here." See Macdonald's statement as to Guericke's initial acceptance of the argument
followed by his later retraction of his endorsement, Lt~e and Writings, p. 169. Robinson,
Redating, pp. 221 ff.
34. Stuart, Apoca~pse 1:265.
35. Robinson, Redating, pp. 221 -222n.
36. Again.d Heresies 2:22:5; 3:3:4.
37. See Tertullian, On th Exclmion of Heretia 36; cp. Jerome, Agairut Jotinicmum 1:26.
38. Ecclesia.stizal Hi.sto~ 3:23:3, citing Against Heresies 2:22:5.
39. In his Ecclesiastical Ht.story (7:25: 16) Eusebius denies what Irenaeus clearly ailirms,
that the Apostle .John wrote Revelation: "But I think that he was some other one of those
in Asia; as they say that there are two monuments in Ephesus, each bearing the name
ofJohn. "
Irenaeu.s, Bishop ofLpns 55
accept a dubious expression of the Bishop of Lyons as adequate to
set aside an overwhelming weight of evidence, alike external and
internal, in proof of the fact that the Apocalypse was written, at the
latest, soon after the death of Nero."w
Second, the Latin translation of Irenaeus reads: quiet Apoca~psin
uiderat. Neqw enim ante multum tempoti vi-sum est. The Latin translator
may indeed have understood the Greek phrase as commonly understood.
This may explain the visum est as opposed to the visa est. But it
should be remembered that the Latin translation is not Irenaeus's
original and thus did not come with his imprimatur. Indeed, renowned
Church historian John Laurence von Mosheim — who composed
his famous Church history in Latin – spoke quite despairingly
of the Latin translation of Irenaeus. He laments that Irenaeus's
writings "have reached us merely through the medium of a wretchedly
barbarous and obscure Latin translation."4' Schaff agrees that
this translation employs "barbarous Latin. "42 Stuart calls it "a dead
literality."4 3 Having remarked on the obscurities of Irenaeus's Greek
(see quotation above), the translators of Irenaeus for the Ante-Nicesw
Fathers add that "the Latin version adds to these difllculties of the
original, by being itself of the most barbarous character. . . . Its
author is unknown, but he was certainly little qualified for his task. "w
Not only was the translator inadequate to the task, but he
probably had no independent knowledge of the matter apart from
what he had learned fi-om his own reading of Irenaeus. Hence, his
mistake (if it be one) could be due to the very real ambiguities of the
text that have led modern Greek scholars into debate over the translation.
In addition, it may well be that the Latin text is corrupt. The
science of textual criticism has an impressive capacity to work back
to the original readings of corrupted texts through the application of
sound philological and critical principles. Chase suggests that the
problem may indeed be one of accidental textual corruption in light
of the following intrinsic probabilities: "The translator, especially
40. See Farrar, Ear~ Days, p. 408.
41. John Laurence von Mosheim, Histoy of Chri.stimsi~ in the Farst Three Centutis (New
York: Converse, 1854) 1:393.
42. Schaff, Histov 1 :752n.
43. Stuart, Apocajpse 2:119.
44. Roberts and Rambaut,inANFI:311 -312.
56 BEFORE JERUSALEM FELL
with ujv&oKdiqJw before him in the Greek text, could not have
been ignorant that 'ALIOKCilVplC is a feminine substantive. Especially
when contractions were used, vim-s and uium would be easily
confused. It appears to me probable that the somewhat strange vi.wm
e.rt points back to an original ZJisus est. The latter words, if they seemed
difficult, would easily be corrupted into vfium e$t."45
The third problem with the re-interpretation of Irenaeus is explaining
how Irenaeus could speak of those who saw John toward the
latter end of Domitian's reign in light of the fact that he also tells us
John lived into Trajan's reign. In Agaimt Heresies Irenaeus writes that
John "continued with the Elders till the times of Trajan."4G Surely
Irenaeus would not contradict himself by suggesting in one place
that John lived until the end of Domitian's reign, while in another
saying that he lived to Trajan's reign.
The problem, however, is not as diflicult to overcome as might
initially appear. In the first place, Domitian died in A.D. 96 and
Trajan became emperor in A.D. 98 (after a very brief reign by
Nerva). Swete states of Irenaeus's reference that it speaks of John's
"having lived to the time of Trajan, i.e. to the year 98 at least."47 Orz@
two years separati th rei~. It is not unreasonable to suppose that
almost a century later the two years' difference separating the two
emperors could have been blurred by Irenaeus. It must be remembered
that dating then was very imprecise because chronicles were
not kept by Christians. As Robinson notes regarding problems of
chronology during that era: "The sources, Roman, Jewish, and Christian,
are largely uncoordinated and share no common canon of
chronology such as is supposed by any modern historian."48
In the second place, Irenaeus does not say (upon the reconstruction
of his argument as per Chase and others) that John died at the
end of Domitian's reign. He simply says he "was seen" (bpddq) at
that time, perhaps by those who spoke to him face to face (to whom
lrenaeus refers). Possibly there is a contrast of ideas between these
two references, a contrast that involves John's advanced age: "Obviously
the statement that the Apostle 'was seen at the close of Domi-
45. Chase, "Date", p. 435.
46. Against Heresies 2:22:5 and 3:3:4. Both of Irenaeus's statements are quoted in the
Greek in Eusebius, Eccle.siustical Hi.rtoty 3:23:3.
47. Swete, Revelation, p. clxxix.
48. Robinson, Redating, p. 32.
Irenaeu-s, Bishop of Lyons 57
tian's' reign cannot be considered inconsistent with the statement
that 'he continued with the Elders till the times of Trajan.' It may
well be that there is an intentional contrast between the phrase
IZt--6jJElVEV aikof~ and &opc@q. The former appears to me simply
to suggest the idea of survival, the latter (as used by Irenaeus) of free
intercourse. ln his extreme old age, in 'the times of Trajan,' if it be
well into Trajan's re@, KLG it can hardly be but that, though he
'continued with' the Church, St John withdrew from the society of
the Christians at Ephesus; he was no longer 'seen.' "49 Such is an
entirely reasonable hypothesis.
The Signt@ance of the Time Refererwe
Not only does the contextual emphasis on personal contact with
and knowledge of John provide a clue to the referent of .hptitlq, but
also the phraseology as to when "John" or "it" was seen. We turn
again to Chase, who offers a penetrating insight into this further
aspect of the problem:
On which of the two suppositions is the language of Irenaeus more
natural, on the supposition that he is referring to the date of the vision
and of the publication of the Book, or on the supposition that he is
referring to the time when St John was still alive and still associated
with the members of the Church? Now Irenaeus wrote the third book
of his great work when Eleutherus was Bishop of Rome (3:3:3), i.e.
between 175 A.D. and 190 A. D.; and the fifth book cannot be of an
earlier date. Domitian was murdered in 96 A.D. Hence if the Apocalypse
was "seen" at "the close of Domitian's reign," nearly a hundred
years had elapsed when Irenaeus wrote his fifth book. Is it natural
that, in reference to a vision seen and a book composed nearly a
hundred years previously, Irenaeus should have used the expression
0662 ydp npd nofiofi ~6vov kopaOq, d,Ud O@dv km' @G
@&rkpa< ygvetl~? On the other hand, such language is no more than
a venial hyperbole if he had in mind the prolongation of St John's life,
the internal between whom and himself was spanned by the life of his
master, Polycarp of Smyrna. As we learn from the Epistle to Florinus,
Irenaeus had a most vivid remembrance of Polycarp as Polycarp had
a most vivid remembrance of St John.50
This problem is so obvious that even a late date advocate of the
49. Chase, "Date," p. 435.
50. Ibid., p. 433.
58 BEFORE JERUSALEM FELL
calibre of Peake expresses fi-ustration: "The statement of Irenaeus 'it
was seen not long ago, but almost in our own generation,' is difficult,
since Irenaeus wrote his great work about A.D. 180-190, nearly a
century after the closing of Domitian's reign, and his birth probably
at least a quarter of a century later than the death of Domitian. "51
ln addition, the time phrase cannot be pushed too far in this
regard for a very important reason: "It should be noted that the
words rrp& nj3 rkk TGG A ops-navofi cipxij~ do not stand in immediate
connection with &op&Oq; they are added to explain h' r~c
xjjw~~paq yEVE@. Further, the Greek preposition np6~ (the use of
which with the dative in a temporal sense is very unusual) does not
seem to express quite so sharply as the English preposition 'at' the
notion ofa point oftime. "52 How can such observations be considered
the least unreasonable? The evidence against the usefulness of Irenaeus
for late date advocacy continues to mount.
Incompatibilip of Irena.wsk Revelation Statements
Another problem with the commonly received translation is with
Irenaeus's statement at 5:30:1:
He states these things in the third book of his above-mentioned work,
In the fifth book he speaks as follows concerning the Apocalypse of
John, and the number of the name of Antichrist: "As these things are
so, and this number is found in all the approved and ancient copies. "53
Irenaeus's mention of ancient copies of Revelation indicates his awareness
of its circulating "at a much earlier time. "54 Irenaeus's statement
may be suggestive as to the date of Revelation. Lee comments that
such a statement tends to suggest "an early date for the inscripturation
of the original master document itself. Clearly, the original
autograph must have been still more ancient than even any of the
'most ancient copies.' For even the 'most anchmt copies' could only have
been made after the original auto~aph. . . . And to the 185 A.D.
Irenaeus, the 'most ancient' copies of all of the various 'am"ent copies'
had apparently all been made, well before 'the end of Domitian's
51. Peake, Rmelation, p. 72 n. 1.
52. Chase, "Date," p. 434.
53. Eusebius Ecclessiastieal History 5:8:5-6. Cited horn .%haff and Wace, eds., Nuene
and Post-Nuens F&hs 1:222.
W. Guthrie, Introduction, p. 933.
Irenaeus, Bishop of Lpn.s 59
rule.' "55 Is it not remarkable that in the same breath Irenaeus can
mention "those who have seen John face to face" and "all the good
and ancient copies of Revelation"? It would seem that the "ancient"
(cip~doz5) character of the "copies" (&my@~ozq) would suggest
something more ancient than the "end of Domitian's reign," which
Irenaeus speaks of as "almost in our own generation."
It is difficult to see why the A.D. 130ff Irenaeus would have referred
(as he did) to "ancient copies" (rather than simply to "copies") – tithe
original autograph had itself been written on~ "towards the end of
Domitian's rule." . . . For then, the first "ancient copies" would and
could only have been made after A.D. 96 — whereas Irenaeus implies
that those ancient copies were made before that date! Moreover, even
if the copies comemed were made only after A.D. 96 – they could
hardly have been called "ancient" by the time of Irenaeus (born 130
A.D.). Still less could such first copies then (at a date only after 96
A. D.) appropriately have been described by Irenaeus as "the most
approved and ancient copies." Surely the compilation of many copies
would thereafter require even further time. And the further determination
of such of those approved and ancient copies as Irenaeus refers
to as the "most approved and ancient copies" of the original, would
need a further long time to take place.56
If Revelation were written pre-A.D. 70, then its date would be about
three decades older still.
The Weight of Irenaeus's Statement
Few early church fathers stand above Irenaeus in importance as
an early, reliable witness to ancient Church history. Williston Walker
notes that he was "the earliest theological leader of distinction in the
rising Catholic Church. "57 Schaff agrees with Walker's assessment
and speaks highly of Irenaeus: "Irenaeus is the leading representative
of catholic Christianity in the last quarter of the second century, the
champion of orthodoxy against Gnostic heresy, and the mediator
between the Eastern and Western churches. He united a learned
Greek education and philosophical penetration with practical wis-
55. Francis Nigel Lee, "Revelation and Jerusalem" (Brisbane, Australia by the
author, 1985), $36.
56. Ibid., $37.
57. Williston Walker, A Histoty of the Christian Church, 3rd ed. (New York: Scribners,
1970), p. 62.
60 BEFORE JERUSALEM FELL
dom and moderation. He is neither very original nor brilliant, but
eminently sound and judicious. "58 He is an extremely helpful witness
to many matters of historical significance for the understanding of
early Church history.
Unfortunately, however, "Second-century traditions about the
apostles are demonstrably unreliable."59 And although generally reliable,
Irenaeus's writings are not without imperfection in matters
historical. Indeed, some very fine and reputable scholars of renown
discount his testimony that is so relevant to our debate. Robinson
notes that "despite this the testimony of Irenaeus to a late date,
Hort, together with Lightfbot and Westcott, none of whom can be
accused of setting light to ancient tradition, still rejected a Domitianic
date in favour of one between the death of Nero in 68 and the fall of
Jerusalem in 70. It is indeed a little known fact that this was what.
Hort calls 'the general tendency of criticism for most of the nineteenth
century,' and Peake cites the remarkable consensus of 'both advanced
and conservative scholars' who backed it ."6° The Oxford University
classical historian B. W. Henderson agrees, and adds that
Irenaeus, the earliest extant authority, dates the Revelation under
Domitian. His date, however, is c. 180 A. D., and if the Apocalypse
enjoyed strange vicissitudes of neglect and esteem immediately after
Irenaeus, as with Caius, Hippolytus, and the author of the Muratorian
fragment, it not improbably did before, especially when years
passed. . . . Irenaeus' testimony to its authorship is perhaps more
valuable than to its date. He abandons the task of interpretation in
despair and with it the internal evidence which here on the question
of date is more valuable than one piece of external evidence, not 'a
generation' only later but a century.Gl
Farrar, speaking of Papias's statement regarding the fertility of
the vines in the millennium that is recorded by Irenaeus,b2 makes a
relevant and noteworthy observation:
Experience shows that a story told second-hand, even by an honest
58. Scha~ Histoy 2:750.
59. G. B. Caird, A Comrnmtq on h Revelation of St. John the Divine (New York Harper
& ROW, 1966), p. 4.
60. Robinson, Redating, pp. 224-225.
61. Henderson, Nero, p. 442.
62. Irenaeus, Against Here& 5:33:3.
Irenaew, Bishop of Lyon.s 61
narrator, may be so tinged in the narrator's subjectivity y as to convey
an impression positively false. We are thus obliged to discount the
tales and remarks for which Irenaeus refers us to the authority of "the
Elders," by whom he seems chiefly to mean Papias and Polycarp.
Now Eusebius does not hesitate to say that Papias was a source of
error to Irenaeus and others who relied on his "antiquity." When
Irenaeus says that the "Pastor of Hermas" is canonical; that the head
of the Nicolaitans was the Deacon Nicolas; and that the version of the
LXX. was written by inspiration; – we know what estimate to put
on his appeals to apostolic tradition.G3
Late date advocate Guthrie admits that Irenaeus is too often uncritical
in his evaluation of evidence. '4 Another, and even more vigorous,
late date advocate, James Moffatt, observes that "Irenaeus, of course,
is no great authority by himself on matters chronological."G5
If Irenaeus's famous statement is not to be re-interpreted along
the lines of the argument as outlined above (although the present
writer believes it should), it may still be removed as a hindrance to
early date advocacy on the following grounds. These grounds may
not be so substantial when considered individually, but when their
combined weight is added to the above translational problem, they
tend to render Irenaeus's statement of questionable significance.
Ireno.au% Relatiowhip to Po~carp
In the statement regarding John's writing Revelation while banished
by Domitian, Irenaeus makes reference to the testimony of
those who saw John "face to face. " It is a noteworthy fact emphasized
by Irenaeus that he met Polycarp, who had known the Apostle John.
Indeed, Irenaeus highly cherished the memory of Polycarp, as he
mentions in his letter to Florinus:
For I saw thee when I was yet a child mrfg .&n &v, in Lower Asia
with Polycarp, and thou wert in stately position in the royal palace
and studying to approve thee to him. For I recall rather what happened
then than what are more recent (for what we learnt from our
very childhood grow on us with our soul and are a part of it) so that
I can even tell the place where the blessed Polycarp and I conversed
63. Farrar, Ear~ Days, p. 398.
64. Guthrie, Introdudion, p. 17.
65. Moffatt, Revelation, p. 320.
62 BEFORE JERUSALEM FELL
and his goings forth and comings in and the manner of his life and the
form of his body and discourses that he used to make to the people,
and his intercourse with John how he would tell of it, and that with
the rest of those who had seen the Lord, and how he would recount
their words: and concerning the Lord what things they were which
he had heard from them both as to His mighty works and His
Teaching, as Polycarp having received them from the eye-witnesses
of the Life of the Word, used to recount them consonantly to the
Scriptures. These things did I then too by the mercy of God which
was upon me hear diligently, noting them not on paper but in my
own heart and ever by the grace of God do I ruminate them aright.~
In Against Heresies we read Irenaeus saying:
And Polycarp too, who had not only been trained by the Apostles,
and had conversed with many of those who had seen Christ, but also
had been constituted by the Apostles, Bishop over Asia, in the Church
of Smyrna: – whom we also saw in the first age of our life; for he
tarried with us long, and in extreme old age, by a glorious and
distinguished martyrdom, departed this life; having always taught
these things, which he learned from the Apostles, which the Church
delivers, which alone are true.67
Quite naturally Irenaeus's connection to Polycarp is of much
historical importance and tends to lend even greater weight to Irenaeus's
statement. Despite this revered meeting, Irenaeus, it should
be noted, claims to have seen Polycarp as a nwf~, a child, in the "first
age of our life" (t% @ zrpoz~ Lhms). Furthermore, he specifically
says that he did not take notes of this meeting. A long period of
time – perhaps three-quarters of a century – passed before he wrote
his Against Heresies. Thus, some of his memories of those who saw
John "face to face" (e.g., Polycarp) could have been diminished by
both his own youthful immaturity at the time of his meeting with
Polycarp and the passage of a great deal of time.
Irenaeus, the Church Fat/uns, and Historical Matters
For the present purposes, a couple of samples from Eusebius will
sufice in illustration of the fact that other Church fathers did not
66. Irenaeus, Letter to Flotinm, in John Keble, trans., Five Books ~S. Irenau.i Bishop ~
L~ Against Heresies (London: James Parker, 1872).
67. Against Hereries 3:3:4.
Irenaeus, Bishop of Lpns 63
accept necessarily Irenaeus's authority as conclusive.
Irenaeus states matter-of-factly that Papias was "the hearer of
John.'yM Eusebius, however, provides information that contradicts
Irenaeus's claim that Papias had heard John. Eusebius records a
statement by Papias that said, "If therefore anyone came who had
been a follower of the Presbyters, I would ask him about the words
of the Presbyters."Gg According to Eusebius, and contrary to Irenaeus,
Papias sought for those who had seen any of the "presbyters"
or apostles. Obviously, then, he was not one of them himselfl
In other places Eusebius disputes the opinion that Revelation
was written by the Apostle John.70 And this despite the fact Irenaeus
(who claims to have known Polycarp, who knew John) was certain
" 7that the Apostle wrote It. 1 For some reason, obviously compelling
to Eusebius, he felt justified in contradicting Irenaeus's emphatic
statements regarding the Johannine authorship of Revelation.
Eusebius's countering of Irenaeus's witness in this area surely indicates
that this great chronicler of the Church did not conceive of
Irenaeus as above reproach on historical matters.
Irenaeus% Historical ErroTJ
In Against Heresies we read a very unusual historical statement:
For how had He disciples, if He did not teach? And how did He teach,
if He had not a Master's age? For He came to Baptism as one Who
had not yet fulfilled thirty years, but was beginning to be about thirty
years old; (for so Luke, who bath signified His years, bath set it down;
Now Jesus, when He came to Baptism, began to be about thirty years
old:) and He preached for one year only after His Baptism: completing
His thirtieth year He suffered, while He was still young, and not
yet come to riper age. But the age of 30 years is the first of a young
man's mind, and that it reaches even to the fortieth year, everyone
will allow: but after the fortieth and fiftieth year, it begins to verge
towards elder age: which our Lord was of when He taught, as the
Gospel and all the Elders witness, who in Asia conferred with John
the Lord's disciple, to the effect that John had delivered these things
68. Irenaeus, Against Heresses 5:33:4.
69. Eusebius, Ecc.!esiadical Hi.stoT 3:39.
70. Ibid., 3:24:17-18; 5:8:5-7; 7:25:7,8, 14.
71. See Irenaeus, Against Herm"es 4142; 416:6; 421 :3; 4:28:2; 5:342, compare with
420:11; 5:26:1.
64 BEFORE JERUSALEM FELL
unto them: for he abode with them until the times of Trajan. And
some of them saw not only John, but others also of the Apostles, and
had this same account from them, and witness to the aforesaid relation.
Whom ought we rather to believe? These, being such as they
are, or Ptolemy, who never beheld the Apostles, nor ever in his dreams
attained to any vestige of an Apostle?72
The careful detail he meticulously recounts in his argument, and
the reference to the eyewitness accounts, should be noted. Yet, no
respected New Testament scholar asserts that the biblical record
allows for a fifteen year or more ministry for Christ, or of His having
attained an age in excess of forty. We must vigorously assert that
Irenaeus was "strangely mistaken about the age of Jesus."73 As
Selwyn notes in another connection regarding Irenaeus's Against
Here~ies (3:11:8): "Meanwhile as to Irenaeus, it must be owned that
he is inevitably pursued by his own sayings. No man who has written
down the statement, that there must be four gasps because there are
four winds, can fairly hope to preserve the same reputation as a judge
of evidence after it as be fore."74
Additional insights into obvious errors could be cited from Irenaeus.
But the one cited should demonstrate clearly that he could (he
did at least once!) err on matters of historical detail – even when he
claimed the authority of eyewitness accounts.
Irenaeus aJ the Fountain of Tradition
It is surely the case that the external evidence stands as t/w
strongest witness for the late dating of Revelation. But caution should
forestall our wholehearted endorsement of that witness. Several scholars
of note argue that the strong external witness to the late date of
Revelation most likely may be traced back to Irenaeus's lone witness.
As Terry observes:
It seems to us that no impartial mind can fail to see that the extermd
witness preponderates in favor of the later date. But when we scrutinize
the character and extent of this evidence, it seems equally clear
that no very great stress can safely be laid upon it. For it all turns
72. Irenaeus, Against Here&s 2:22:5.
73. Scha~ Hirtoty 2:751.
74. Edward C. Selwyn, Clmktian Pro,bhzti and &Pro@rAc A@ca~pse (London: Macmillan,
1900), p. 125.
Irenaeus, Bishop of Lyons 65
upon the single testimony of Irenaeus, who wrote according to the
best authorities, about 100 years after the death of John. . . .
. . .
one clear and explicit testimony, when not opposed by other evidence,
would be allowed by all fair critics to control the argument;
but not so when many other considerations tend to weaken it.75
It is widely – even if not universally – recognized that Irenaeus's
stature in early Church history caused many later Church fathers to
depend – sometimes too uncritically – upo"n his witness alone to
conclude many matters. For instance, Guthrie (a late date advocate
regarding Revelation) agrees with Streeter's assertion that all Church
fathers after Irenaeus simply repeated his view regarding the origin
of the Gospel of Matthew.'G This problem undoubtedly is true in
many other connections as well, and is illustrative of our concern.
Regarding Irenaeus's opinion on the banishment of John, the
fact of the matter is that he is "the ultimate source in every case" of
the early fathers.77 Other scholars of note express a hesitancy on
similar grounds to succumb to the drift of external evidence in this
regard. T. Randell notes that "the clear and positive external testimony
against it is not strong, being reducible (as it seems to us) to
the solitary statement of Irenaeus, near the end of the second centu~,
that the Apocalypse was seen towards the close of Domitian's
reign. . . . Irenaeus, writing a century after the fact, may easily
have made the mistake of putting the name of one famous persecuting
emperor instead of the other, and it is remarkable that his statement
is supported by no other writer earlier than Victorious of Pettan, after
a second interval of a century. Eusebius and Jerome, in the fourth
century, do not strengthen what they merely repeat ."78 Milton Terry
agrees: "When we scrutinize the character and extent of this evidence,
it seems equally clear that no very great stress can safely be laid upon
it. For it all turns upon the single testimony of Irenaeus. "79
Moses Stuart expresses the same sentiment when he perceptively
argues that
75. Terry, Herrrwwu tics, pp. 237, 239.
76. Guthrie, Introduction, p. 29 n.4.
77. C. C. Torrey, Z7u Apocalypse ofJohn (New Haven: Yale, 1958), p. 78.
78. T. Randell, "Revelation," in vol. 22 of T/u Pulpit Commentary (Grand Rapids:
Eerdmans, rep. 1950), p. iv.
79. Terry, Hemwmdscs, p. 237.
66 BEFORE JERUSALEM FELL
The testimony in respect to the matter before us is evidently swxessive
and dependent, not coeaneous and independent. . . .W
. . . .
If now the number of the witnesses were the only thing which should
control our judgment in relation to the question proposed, we must,
so far as external evidence is concerned, yield the palm to those who fix
upon the time of Domitian. But a careful examination of this matter
shows, that the whole concatenation of witnesses in favour of this
position hangs upon the testimony of Irenaeus, and their evidence is
little more than a mere repetition of what he has said. Eusebius and
Jerome most plainly depend on him; and others seem to have had in
view his authority, or else that of Eusebius.81
Barclay Newman writes that the fact that later witnesses almost
certainly derive from him makes him "of minimal and negative value
for determining the original context of the Apocalypse."B2
This problem is especially disturbing when it is allowed to overshadow
a book's own self-witness to its date for "the internal witness
of any writing which is not suppositions, must always outweigh
testimony of such a nature, provided such evidence is sufficiently
plain and ample. . . . What book in the New Testament has as
many diagnostic passages in respect to time as this i.e. Revelation
?"83
Conclusion
In closing it should be noted that there are several other possible
reasons for Irenaeus's error, if it be such. (1) Irenaeus could have
had information that related to Domitian's brief rei~ for Vespasian
in A.D. 70 when he had "full consular authority — impeno consulari. "84
Tacitus states in his Histories that before Vespasian came to Rome to
assume power "Caesar Domitian received the praetorship. His name
was prefixed to epistles and edicts."85 Irenaeus could have confounded
this evidence with Domitian's later reign as emperor. (2)
80. Stuart, Apocalypse 1:282.
81. Ibid. 2:269.
82. B. Newman, "The Fallacy of the Domitian Hypothesis," New Testament Studies 10
(1962-63):138.
83. Stuart, Apoca@e 1:281.
84. Edmundson, Church in Rome, p. 170. See also Simcox, Revelation, p. xl.
85. TacitUs, Htitoria 4:39.
Ireruzeus, Bishop of Lpns 67
John could have suffered twice, under both Nero and Domitian. This
certainly could account for Irenaeus's confusion. (3) Also it should
be remembered that Irenaeus was at Lyons when he wrote – quite
far away from ecclesiastical tradition. Stuart comments in this regard:
"I say this, with full recognition of the weight and value of Irenaeus's
testimony, as to ,any matters of fact with which he was acquainted,
or as to the common tradition of the churches. But in view of what
Origen has said. . . , how can we well suppose, that the opinion of
Irenaeus, as recorded in Cont. Haeres, V. 30 was formed in any other
way, than by his own interpretation of Rev. 1:9. "86
A careful scrutiny of the Irenaean evidence for a late date for
Revelation tends to render any confident employment of him suspect.
The difficulties with Irenaeus in this matter are many and varied,
whether or not his witness is accepted as credible. A bold "thus saith
Irenaeus," cannot be conclusive of the matter.
86. Stuart, Apoca@pse 1:281.
5
CLEMENT OF ALEXANDRIA
Titus Flavius Clemens (c. A.D. 150-215) was a presbyter in the
church of Alexandria from about A.D. 189 until his death. He
possessed an eclectic richness of information derived from broad
reading, and he is known as the father of Alexandria Christian
philosophy. 1 Clement of Alexandria almost universally is cited by
late date advocates as supportive of their view.2
The statement from Clement that is deemed useful is found in
his Quis Saluus Diues (i.e., Who is th Rich Man that sAall be Saued?),
Section 42.
And to give you confidence, when you have thus truly repented, that
there remains for you a trustworthy hope of salvation, hear a story
that is no mere story, but a true account of John the apostle that has
been handed down and preserved in memory. When after the death
of the tyrant he removed fkom the island of' Patmos to Ephesus, he
used to journey by request to the neighboring districts of the Gentiles,
in some places to appoint bishops, in others to regulate whole churches,
in others to set among the clergy some one man, it may be, of those
indicated by the Spirit.3
The critical phrase here is "after the death of the tyrant he removed
from the island of Patmos to Ephesus." The Greek of that phrase is:
1. Philip Schaff, Histo~ of ths Christian Church, 8 vols. (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans,
1910 1950) 2:783.
2. See for example, R. H. Charles, T/u Rswlation of St. John, 2 VOIS. International
Critical Commentary (Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark, 1920), pp. xcii-xciii; Henry Barclay
Swete, CornmsntaU on Rsvdation (Grand Rapids: Kregel, 1906 1977), p. xcix; Donald
Guthne, New T~tum-nt Introdudion, 3rd ed. (Downers Grove, IL: Inter-Varsity Press,
1970) , pp. 956-957.
3. G. W. Butterworth, Clement ofA/exandna (London: Heinemann, 1919), pp. 356tY
68
Clement of Alexandria 69
~17E161j yap TOfi Z'@ WOV ZE~EVIIjHfTO~ 61T0 Z@ ~d7J10V Zij<
V@OV ~ETlja6&V .hl' @V '~~&c70V.
Despite widespread employment of Clement's statement in the
debate, a close consideration of the comment lessens its usefulness
as evidence for the late date of Revelation. Furthermore, some quite
logical considerations actually tilt the evidence from Clement in an
early date direction, despite Clement's presumed role as a leading
late date witness.
Identifying the "Tyrant"
It should be painfully obvious upon even a cursory reading of the
text that the required name, "Domitian," is not once mentioned in
this piece of evidence – an evidence that Swete4 calls one of "the chief
authorities"! John is said to return from Patmos after the death of
"the tyrant." But who was this "tyrant"? May we cite Clement of
Alexander's nebulous statement as evidence for a late date with any
credible degree of certainty or conviction? It is true that "the absence
of a name in both Clement and Origen certainly does not prove that
no name was known to them. But the coincidence is curious, and on
the whole suggests that the Alexandria tradition assigned the stay
in Patmos to banishment by an emperor, but did not name the
emperor."5
As a matter of fact, iVem above all other emperors best meets up
to the qualification of "tyrant" for several reasons:
The Universal Fear ofNero
First, even outside Christian circles Nero's infamous evil was
greatly feared. Pliny the Elder (a contemporary of Nero who died in
the eruption of Vesuvius in A.D. 79) described Nero as "the destroyer
of the human race," "the poison of the world."G A full quotation from
Pliny is here given:
Marcus Agrippa is said to have been born in this manner i.e., breech
position, almost the solitary instance of a successful career among all
those so born – although he too is deemed to have paid the penalty
4. Swete, Rez.dation, p. xcix.
5. F. J. A. Hort, Tb Apoca@pse ofSL John: I-III (1.ondon: Macmillan, 1908), p. xv.
6. Pliny, Natural History 7:45; 22:92, trans. found in Miriam T. Gri8in, Nero: The End
ofa Dyaa.ro (New Haven: Yale, 1984), p. 15.
70 BEFORE JERUSALEM FELL
which his irregular birth foretold, by a youth made unhappy by
lameness, a lifetime passed amidst watiare and ever exposed to the
approach of death, bythe misfortune caused to the world by his whole
progeny but especially due to his two daughters who became the
mothers of the emperors Gaius Caligula and Domitius Nero, the two
firebrands of mankind. . . . Nero also, who was emperor shortly
before and whose entire rule showed him the enemy of mankind.7
Apollonius of Tyana (b. 4 B.C.) says that Nero was "commonly
called a Tpant": "In my travels, which have been wider than ever
man yet accomplished, I have seen many, many wild beasts of Arabia
and India; but this beast, that is commonly called a Tyrant, I know
not how many heads it has, nor if it be crooked of claw, and armed
with horrible fangs. . . . And of wild beasts you cannot say that
they were ever known to eat their own mothers, but Nero has gorged
himself on this diet."8
Roman historian Tacitus (A.D. 56-117) spoke of Nero's "cruel
nature"g that "put to death so many innocent men." 10 He records a
senate speech that discussed the wrongs of Tiberius and Gaius,
noting that "Nero arose more implacable and more cruel" and that
the senate under Nero "had been cut down." 11 Suetonius (A.D.
70-130) speaks of Nero's "cruelty of disposition" evidencing itself at
an early age. 12 He documents Nero's evil and states: "Neither discrimination
nor moderation were employed in putting to death
whomsoever he pleased on any pretext whatever." 13 Juvenal (c. A.D.
60- 138) speaks of "Nero's cruel and bloody tyranny." 14 He laments
Nero's heinous sexual exploits with handsome young men: "No misshapen
youth was ever unsexed by cruel tyrant in his castle; never
did Nero have a bandy-legged or scrofulous favourite, or one that
was hump-backed or pot-bellied!" 15
7. Pliny, Natural Histo~ 7:45.
8. F%ilostratus, Lt> of Apollonius 438. Cited in John A. T Robinson, Redating the New
Testamsnt (Philadelphia: Westminster, 1976), p. 235, from J. S. Phillimore (Oxford, 1912)
2:38.
9. Tacitus, Historia 4:8.
10. Ibid. 4:7.
11. Ibid. 442.
12. Suetonius, Nero 7:1.
13. Ibid. 37:1.
14. Juvenal, Satires 7:22.5.
15. Satinx 10:306ff.
Clement of Alexandria 71
In the Syriac The Histo~ of John the Son of Zebedee Nero is called
"the unclean and impure and wicked king." 16 Nero's notoriety was
long remembered, and with peculiar loathing. Surely this is why
Clement could write merely "the tyrant" when he made reference to
the emperor of the banishment!
Furthermore, Nero was widely suspected of intentionally starting
the fire (which began on July 19, A.D. 64) that caused the horribly
destructive burning of Rome. Pliny the Elder (A.D. 23-79), Suetonius,
17 the writer of the Octavia (c. A.D. 75), and Dio Cassius (A.D.
150-235)'8 allege his culpability in this regard. And Tacitus indicates
the allegations were contemporary with the fire. 19
Among the ancient pagan written traditions exhibiting a hatred
and mockery of Nero are: The Octavia,*" Suetonius,21 Pliny the Younger
(A.D. 62-113),22 Juvenal,23 Martial (c. A.D. 38-85),24 Statius (A.D.
40-96) ,25 Marcus Aurelius (A.D. 120-180),26 Aulus Persius Flaccus
(A.D. 34-62),27 Vulcacius (First Century), 28 Epictetus (A.D. 60-
140) ,29 Marcus Annaeus Lucan (A.D. 39-95),30 and Herodian (A.D.
165-235) .31 A poetic epigram by Martial, written in the reign of
16. William Wright, Apowy~hal ActJ # the Apostkx, vol. 1 (Amsterdam: Philo, 1871
1968), p. 55.
17. Suetonius, Nero 38: lff.
18. Dio Cassius, Rom Hi.stmy 72: 16:1K
19. Tacitus, Annals 15:39, See discussion of these references in Griflin, Nero, pp. 132K
20. Miriam T. Griffin analyzes the presentation of Nero in The Odawh thus: "Nero is,
in fact, the proverbial tyrant, robbed of any personal characteristics, a mere incarnation
of the will to evil, unaffected by advice or influence" (Griffin, Nero, p. 100).
21. Suetonius, Domitian 14.
22. Pliny, Panegyrias 53.
23. Juvenal, Satires 438.
24. Martial Epigrams 7:21, 21:33. Marcus Valerius Martialis was "the greatest of
epigrammatists, and the father of the epigram as we understand it" (Walter C. Kerr,
trans., Martial: Epigrams, Loeb Classical Library Cambridge Harvard University Press,
1967 1 :vii). Martial wrote: 'This is that day which, conscious of a great birth, gave
Lucan to the nations, and Polls, to thee. Ah, Nero! cruel, and for no death more hateful!
this deed at least should not have been permitted thee!"
25. Statius, Silvae 2:7.
26. Marcus Aurelius, Meditattom 3:16.
27. Preserved in Suetonius's On Poets – Aulur Persius Flaau.s.
28. Persius Flaccus, Li> of Cassius 8:4, and Capitolirws 28:10.
29. Epictetus 45:17.
30. Preserved in Suetonius's On Poets – Lucan.
31. Herodian, 1:3:4 and HrMoria Augusta at Marcw 28:10, Auidius Cassius 8:4, and
Cornrnodus 18.
72 BEFORE JERUSALEM FELL
Titus, disparages Nero and extols Titus:
Here where the heavenly CO1OSSUS has a close view
of the stars
And high structures rise on the lofty road
There once shone the hated hall of the cruel king
And one house took up the whole of Rome.
Here where rises the huge mass of the awesome
amphitheatre
In sight of all was Nero's pool.
A proud park deprived the poor of their houses.
Where the Claudian temple spreads its wide shade
Stood the last part of the palace.
Rome is returned to herself and under your rule,
Caesar,
The delights of their master have become those of
the people.32
Thus, biblical scholar Merrill C. Tenney speaks scathingly of the
notorious evil of Nero: "Having exhausted the imperial treasury by
his heedless expenditures, he looked for some method of replenishing
it. Heavy taxation of the estates of childless couples, false accusations
followed by confiscation of wealth, and outright murder of the aristocracy
or else invitation to suicide made life unbearable. Wealthy men
lived in dread of the emperor's displeasure, and so great was the
terror that the senatorial class endured unimaginable insults and
mistreatment as the price of staying alive. Men betrayed their best
ftiends, perjured themselves, and stooped to any infamy to aver the
emperor's hatred or cupidity."33 Historian B. W. Henderson writes
in a similar vein, and adds regarding Nero's memory:
And now i.e., in Vespasian's reign begins that systematic disparagement
of Nero which consciously or unconsciously colours the whole
of our extant records, as has been already explained. The farther, too,
that the traveller recedes the darker looks the air behind him, and the
historic mist has at once such obscuring and such magni~ing power
that the writers of the Flavian age devoted little care to recovering the
true outlines of Nero's portrait, or considering the great background
32. Martial, Book of Spectacles 2.
33. Men-ill C. Tenney, New T~tament Tim-s (Chicago: Moody, 1965, p. 289).
Clement of Alexandria 73
which lay behind his personal character and misdeeds. The dismal
and prosaic tragedy called the "Octavia," written in the early part of
Vespasian's Principate, lacks all poetic merit, and has in solitary
compensation one historic interest, revealing to us how quickly Nero's
character could be stereotyped as that of the blackest of all villains
under the dynasty which had replaced the Julian. Otherwise the
journalist of a law court could write a more moving tragedy. Martial
and Statius the poets hurl at Nero's head their choicest and most
abusive epithets. Domitian could in later years be loaded with no
greater reproach than that of being a second Nero, a "bald-headed
Nero." . . . Marcus Aurelius used him as did Epictetus earlier, as
type of the evil character. "To be violently drawn and moved by the
lusts atid desires of the soul," said the philosopher King, "is proper
to wild beasts and monsters, such as Phalaris and Nero were." And
the inferior scribblers of later generations who wrote the Emperors'
lives inscribed on a permanent black-list the names of six Emperors
— Caligula, Vitellius, Domitian, Commodus, Heliogabalus, and,
always, Nero.34
Nero scholar Miriam T. Griffin speaks of Nero's tyrannical behavior
thus:
Commenting on the unanimity of opinion about the Emperor Nero
that prevails among the ancient authorities, the historian Charles
Merivale wrote, 'With some allowance only for extravagance of colouring,
we must accept in the main the verisimilitude of the picture they
have left us of this arch-tyrant, the last and the most detestable of the
Caesarean family. . . . Nero was the first Princeps to be declared a
public enemy by the Senate. . . .35
. . . .
In European literature Nero has served as the stock example of
unnatural cruelty, a matricide in Shakespeare's Hamlet, a fratricide in
Racine's Britannicus. The hero of the Marquis de Sade, he has fascinated
decadent writers as the inzredibilium cupitor longing to overcome
human limits through extremes of luxury, cruelty and depravity. . . .
Certainly no serious historian has been tempted to whitewash the
tyrant.36
34. B. W. Henderson, Thz La> and Primi#ate of the Emperor Nero (London: Methuen,
1903), pp. 418-419.
35. Grifth, Nmo, p. 15.
36. Ibid., p. 16. The statement that no modem historian "has been tempted to
74 BEFORE JERUSALEM FELL
The Fear of Nero% Return
Second, Nero was so dreaded by many that after his death there
began circulating haunting rumors of his destructive return. In fact,
"very soon after Nero's death, there grew up a curious legend which
remains well-nigh unique in history, the legend that Nero would
return to earth again to reign. "37 The rumors can be found in the
writings of Tacitus, Suetonius, Dio Cassius, Zonara, Dion Chrysostom,
Augustine, and other ancient writers.38
In the corpus of the Sibylline Oracles Nero appears as a constant
threat to the world. Sibylline scholar J. J. Collins notes in this regard
that "there is the prominence of Nero as an eschatological adversary
throughout the Sibylline corpus."39 Let us take a few pages to demonstrate
the pervasiveness of Nero in these alleged prophecies of folklore
quality. In the Jewish Sibylline Oracles (written "sometime after
A.D. 70")W there is a veiled reference to Nero4 that equates him
with the dreaded Beliar:
Then Beliar will come from the Sehm%noi i.e., the
line of Augustus
and he will raise up the height of mountains, he
will raise up the sea,
the great fiery sun and shining moon,
and he will raise up the dead. . . .
But he will, indeed, also lead men astray, and he
will lead astray
many ftithful, chosen Hebrews, and also other
lawless
men who have not yet listened to the word of
God.42
whitewash the tyrant" is not exactly true. Arthur Weigall in his classic study, Nero:
Emperor of Rome (London: Butten.vorth, 1933) portrays Nero as a victim of bad publicity.
37. Henderson, Nero, p. 419.
38. Tacitus, Histories 1:78; 2:6 Suetonius, Nero 57; DIO Cassius Xiphilinu.s 65:9; Zonara,
Anrusls 11:15-18; Dio Chrysostom, Orations 21:9,10; Augustine, 2% City of Goa' 20:19-3.
See also Sibylline Oracles, 4:119-124, 137-139; 5:331Z, 104-107, 139-154, 214-220, 361-
370; Asamsion of Isaiah 42-4.
39. J. J. Collins, "Sibylline Oracles," in James H. Charlesworth, cd., 010! Teskvrumt
Psewr!spigrapha, 2 vols (Garden City, ~ Doubleday, 1983) 1:360.
40. Ibid., p. 360.
41. Ibid., p. 363, note j.
42. Sibylint Oracles 3:63-70; OTP 1:363.
Clement of Alexandria 75
Another passage found in Sibylline Oracles 4:115-124 teaches that
Nero had fled Rome to Parthia, from whence he would come to terrify
Rome.
Two impostors claiming to be Nero are mentioned in profane
history, one, in A.D. 69 and the other twenty years later.43 Their
attempts to deceive and to gain power required the pervasive belief
in Nero's being alive and in hiding.
Book 5 of the Sibylline Oracles is also a Jewish composition,
written for the most part sometime after A.D. 80.W In this book "the
evil of Nero has the same three dimensions as the evil of Rome: he is
morally evil, he was responsible for the destruction of Jerusalem,
since the Jewish war began in his reign, and he claimed to be God. "45
There we read:
One who has fifty as an initial will be commander,
a terrible snake, breathing out grievous war, who
one day will lay hands
on his own family and slay them, and throw everything
into confusion,
athlete, charioteer, murderer, one who dares ten
thousand things.
He will also cut the mountain between two seas
and defile it with gore.
But even when he disappears he will be destructive.
Then he will return
declaring himself equal to God. But he will prove
that he is not.
Three princes after him will perish at each other's
hands.46
Later in the same book Nero's return from Persia is envisioned.47
He is called
a savage-minded man, much-bloodied, raving non-
43. Tacitus, Histories 2:8,9; Dio Cassius, Rom Histqv 649; Suetonius, Nero 57.
44. Collins, "Sibylline Oracles," OTP 1:390.
45. Ibid.
46. Sib>lline Oracles .5:28-35; OTP 1:393.
47. Sibyllinz Oracles 5:93-110. See Collins, "Sibylline Oracles," OTP 1:395, notes y and
b2.
76 BEFORE JERUSALEM FELL
sense,
with a full host numerous as sand, to bring destruction
on you.w
Nero's "flight to the East" is recorded, and he is called
a terrible and shameless prince
whom all mortals and noble men despise.
For he destroyed many men and laid hands on the
womb.49
His return is prophesied, and he is called "the impious king."5° Later
in Book 5 the return of Nero is to be terribly dreaded:
There will come to pass in the last time about the
waning of the moon
a war which will throw the world into confusion
and be deceptive in guile.
A man who is a matricide will come from the ends
of the earth
in flight and devising penetrating schemes in his
mind.
He will destroy every land and conquer all
and consider all things more wisely than all men.
He will immediately seize the one because of whom
he himself perished.
He will destroy many men and great rulers,
and he will set fire to all men as no one else ever
did.
Through zeal he will raise up those who were
crouched in fear.
There will come upon men a great war from the
West.
Blood will flow up to the band of deep-eddying
rivers.
Wrath will drip in the plains of Macedonia,
an alliance to the people horn the West, but destruction
for the king.5
48. Sibylliru Oracks 5:96; OTP 1:395.
49. Stiyllim Oracles 5:143- 145; OTP 1:396.
50. Si@Mne Oracles 5:224 OTP 1:398.
51. Silyllim Oracles 5:361-374; OTP 1:401-402.
Clcm.ent of Alexandria 77
Book 8 of the Sibylline Oracles was probably written by a Jew
sometime before A.D. 180 and during the reign of Marcus Aurelius,52
over a century after Nero's death. Yet the Nero Redivivu.s myth is still
held, as is evidenced in 8:50-72, 139-159, 169-216. At 8:157 he is 1
called "the great beast," and at 8:176 he is called "the former wretched ~
lord."
Sibylline Oracles, Book 12, apparently was written around A.D.
235 by a Jew.53 Interestingly, in Book 12 "the Sibyl gives negative
accounts of emperors who were widely unpopular — Caligula (VSS.
50-67), Nero (VSS. 78-94), Nerva (VSS. 142-46), Commodus (VSS.
206-28), Septimus Severus (VSS. 256-68). The general attitude to the
emperors, however, is favorable. Praise is lavished on Augustus (VSS.
12-35), Domitian (VSS. 124-38), Hadrian (VSS. 163-75), and Marcus
Aurelius (VSS. 187-205) ."54 In this book Nero is called "terrible and
frightful, " "a terrible snake," one engaged in "making himself equal
to God."55
Collins notes of the Jewish Sibylline Oracles, Book 13, that its
date of A.D. 265 is witness to the decline of the Nero legend. Instead
of actually expecting Nero himsel~ a traitor modeled after the Nero
legend will come.56 It took two centuries for the Nero legend to begin
its decline, so dreadful an impact did Nero make on history. In
8:70-90 he is envisioned as arising from the dead to destroy Rome
and the world.
Nero, the First Imperial Persecutor
Third, for Christians he was especially a dreadful emperor.57 The
Roman historian Tacitus wrote of his persecution, which was not
only the first, but one of the cruelest in Rome's gory history, that
Nero "inflicted unheard-of punishments on those who, detested for
their abominable crimes, were vulgarly called Christians. . . . So
those who first confessed were hurried to the trial, and then, on their
52. Collins, "Sibylline Oracles," OTF' 1:415-416.
53. Ibid., pp. 443-444.
54. Ibid., p. 443.
55. Sibylltne Oracles 12:79, 81, 86; OTP 14-47.
56. Collins, "Sibylline Oracles," OTP 1:453.
57. For more information on the persecution under Nero, see Chaps 12 and 17 below.
78 BEFORE JERUSALEM FELL
showing, an immense number were involved in the same fate. "w
Clement of Rome (first century) speaks of Nero's persecution as one
that claimed "a vast multitude of the elect . . . through many
indignities and tortures."59
The mid-second century Christian pseudepigraphic work Ascension
of Isaiah "foretells" Beliar's reign (i.e. Nero) :60 "Beliar . . .
shall descend . . . in the form of a man, a lawless king, a slayer of
his mother, who . . . will persecute the plant which the Twelve
Apostles of the Beloved have planted. . . . He will act and speak in
the name of the Beloved and say 'I am God and before me there has
been none else.' And all the people in the world will believe in him,
and will sacrifice to him. "G1
Tertullian (A.D. 160-220) heaps disdain upon Nero: "Consult
your histories. There you will find that Nero was the first to rage with
the imperial sword against this school in the very hour of its rise in
Rome. But we glory – nothing less than glory – to have had such a
man to inaugurate our condemnation. One who knows Nero can
understand that, unless a thing were good — and very good — it was
not condemned by Nero. "62 Eusebius (A.D. 260-340) echoes this
hatred of Nero:
When the rule of Nero was now gathering strength for unholy objects
he began to take up arms against the worship of the God of the
universe. It is not part of the present work to describe his depravity:
many indeed have related his story in accurate narrative, and from
them he who wishes can study the perversity of his degenerate madness,
which made him compass the unreasonable destruction of so
many thousands, until he reached that final guilt of sparing neither
his nearest nor dearest, so that in various ways he did to death alike
his mother, brothers, and wife, with thousands of others attached to
his family, as though they were enemies and foes. But with all this
there was still lacking to him this – that it should be attributed to him
58. Tacitus, Anruds 15:44.
59. I Clem+mt'6:1.
60. Beliar here is almost universally recognized to be Nero. See J. P. M, Sweet,
Reuelatwn. Westminster Peliean Commentaries (Philadelphia: Westminster, 1979), p.
218; and George Edmundson, 7% Church in Rome in ihe First Century (London: Longman's,
Green, 1913), p. 48.
61. Ascm"on of Isaiah 41 Ill
62. Tertullian, Apolo~ 5:3.
Clement of Alexandria 79
that he was the first of the emperors to be pointed at as a foe of divine
religion.63
Lactantius (c. A.D. 260-330) speaks of Nero's demise after his
persecution of Peter and Paul. Interestingly, he observes that Nero
was a tyrant "He it was who first persecuted the servants of God;
he crucified Peter, and slew Paul: nor did he escape with impunity;
for God looked on the afNiction of His people; and therefore this
tyrant, bereaved of authority, and precipitated from the height of
empire, suddenly disappeared."~
Sulpicius Severus (A.D. 360-420) writes:
As to Nero, I shall not say that he was the worst of kings, but that he
was worthily held the basest of all men, and even of wild beasts. It
was he who first began a persecution; and I am not sure but he will
be the last also to carry it on, if, indeed, we admit, as many are
inclined to believe, that he will yet appear immediately before the
coming of Antichrist. . . . I content myself with the remark, that he
showed himself in every way most abominable and cruel. . . . He
first attempted to abolish the name of Christian, in accordance with
the fact that vices are always inimical to virtues, and that all good
men are ever regarded by the wicked as casting reproach upon them.G5
In chapter 28 of the same work he continues by noting of Nero's
hideous persecution that "in this way, cruelty first began to be
manifested against the Christians. " He even associates Nero with the
prophecy of Revelation: "It was accordingly believed that, even if he
did put an end to himself with a sword, his wound was cured, and
his life preserved, according to that which was written regarding
him, – 'And his mortal wound was healed,' Rev. 13:3 – to be sent
forth again near the end of the world, in order that he may practice
the mystery of iniquity."G6 Writing of St. Martin of Tours, Severus
states that "when we questioned him concerning the end of the world,
he said to us that Nero and Antichrist have first to come."G7 In this
Sacred Histoy he reserves two chapters to a consideration of Nero's
reign, and only three sentences to Domitian's.
63. Eusebius, Ecckxiadical Histoy 2:25:1-3.
64. On the Death of the Persecutors 2.
65. Sulpicius Severus, Sacred Histo~ 2:28.
66. Sacred Histo~ 2:31. Although he asserts that John wrote Revelation under Domitian.
67. Sulpieius Severus, Dialoguzs 14.
80 BEFORE JERUSALEM FELL
Writing of St. Martin elsewhere, Severus extols his sainted life
by noting that even though he did not suffer martyrdom, he would
gladly have done so. He then chooses two of the worst persecutors of
the Church to exalt Martin's willingness: "But if he had been permitted,
in the times of Nero and of Decius, to take part in the struggle
which then went on, I take to witness the God of heaven and earth
that he would freely have submitted."68
The apocryphal Acts of John th Son of Zebedee follows in the
tradition of hatred and loathing of Nero. It speaks of Nero as "the
unclean and impure and wicked king."G9
From such evidence many modern historians feel the terror and
dread among the early Christians.
Foremost in the rank of those emperors, on whom the church looks
back with horror as her persecutors, stands Nero, a prince whose
conduct towards the Christians admits of no palliation, but was to the
last degree unprincipled and inhuman. The dreadful persecution
which took place by order of this tyrant, commenced at Rome about
the middle of November, in the year of our Lord 64. . . .
. . . .
This dreadful persecution ceased but with the death of Nero. The
empire, it is well known, was not delivered from the tyranny of this
monster until the year 68, when he put an end to his own life.70
Nero was especially feared by Christians (of whom Clement of
Alexandria was one!):
An early Church tradition identified St Paul's "man of sin" and 'son
of perdition" and "mystery of iniquity" with the Emperor Nero; and
of St Augustine's contemporaries some believed that he was still alive
in the vigour of his age, others that he would rise again and come as
Antichrist. Lactantius, St Chrysostom, St Jerome, and other Christian
writers accept and repeat the theory that Nero is the Antichrist to
come. The horrors of the first martyrdoms combined with the Nerolegend
to produce the Christian tradition, and I doubt if the belief is
any more dead today than in the eleventh century, though it cannot
68. Sulpicius Severus, Gtters 3 (To Deacon Aurelius).
69. See Hort, Apocalypse, p. xix.
70. John Laurenee von Mosheim, Hi.stoy of Christiani~ in the First Three Centurks (New
York: Converse, 1854) 1:138, 139.
Clement of Alexandria 81
now as then obtain a Pope's sanction. Nero, after Judas, becomes the
most accursed of the human race. "The first persecutor of the Church
must needs be the last, reserved by God for a final and a more awful
vengeance."7 1
Truly, "the picture of him as the incarnation of evil triumphed as
Christianity triumphed."72 The references to the Nero-Antichrist
designation can be found in the following: the Sibylline Oracles,
Tertullian, Lactantius, Jerome, Augustine, and Sulpicius Severus.73
Th First Centu~ Persecutions
Fourth, the persecution of Christians under Domitian (if we may
call it a persecution) was much less severe than that under Nero
— although it certainly was a tyrannical outburst.74 Lightfoot speaks
of the Neronic persecution in comparison to the Domitianic thus: "the
earlier and more severe assault on the Christians occurred in the
latter years of the reign of Nero."75 In fact, "early evidence is lacking
for any general religious persecution during Domitian's reign. Though
the emperor was a violent man, his violence was directed not against
Christians or any other group but against carefully selected individuals
whom he suspected of undermining his authority. "76 As Edmundson
puts it, Domitian's persecution was "not a general persecution
at all, but a series of isolated acts directed chiefly against a few
influential persons, including members of his own family."77 Hort
speaks of the Domitianic persecution in contrast to the Neronic by
noting that the dramatic language of Revelation "does not fit the
short local reign of terror under Domitian. Nero affected the imagination
of the world as Domitian, as far as we know, never did."78 Late
date advocate G. E. Ladd states that "there is no evidence that during
71. Henderson, Nero, pp. 420-421.
72. Griffin, Nero, p. 15.
73. Sibylline Oracles 5:33; &71; Tertullian, Apologia 5:+ Lactantius, Ttu Death of tlw
Persecutors 2; Jerome, Daniel (at Daniel 11:28), and Dialogues 21:+ Augustine, Thz Cip
of God 20:19; and Sulpicius Severus, Sacred Histoy 2:28, 29.
74. The evidence supportive of this will be examined more fully in Chap. 17.
75. Joseph B. Ligh&oot and J. R. Harmer, eds., 'i% Apostolic Fathm (Grand Rapids:
Baker, 1891 1984), p. 3.
76. Glenn W. Barker, William L. Lane, and J. Ramsey Micbaels, The New Testati
Speaks (New York: Harper & Row, 1969), p. 368.
77. Edmundson, Church in Rmrw, p. 168.
78. Hort, A@oca~p$e, xxvi.
82 BEFORE JERUSALEM FELL
the last decade of the first century there occurred any open and
systematic persecution of the church.'"g
Significantly, Domitian's "persecution" warranted his being called
a "Nero" by many, Christian and non-Christian alike. The Roman
satirist Juvenal, says Domitian was regarded by the Roman aristocracy
as a "bald Nero."8° Martial even refers to Domitian's death as
"Nero's death."81 Tertullian speaks of Domitian in terms of Nero: to
Tertullian he was not only "somewhat of a Nero in cruelty,"82 but a
"sub-Nero."83 That he was known as a "Nero," indicates Nero-% name
win paradigmatic of anti-Christian evil, not Domitian %.
Tertullian (virtually a contemporary with Clement of Alexandria)
also notes in his Scorpiaze that "Nero was the first who stained
with blood the rising faith. "84 Elsewhere he speaks of Domitian much
more favorably than of Nero, thus evidencing the especial early
Christian hatred of Nero's tyranny: "Consult your Annals: there ye
will find that Nero was the first to wreak the fury of the sword of the
Caesars upon this sect, now springing up especially at Rome. But in
such a first founder of our condemnation we even glory. For whoever
knoweth him, can understand that nothing save some great good was
condemned by Nero. Domitian too, who was somewhat of a Nero in
cruelty, had tried it, but forasmuch as he was also a human being,
he speedily stopped the undertaking, even restoring those whom he
had banished."85 Indeed, he mentions only Nero3 persecution when
citing the persecution of the Apostles who were the foundation of the
Church (Eph. 2: 19ff) – and was not John one of the Apostles?
Christian apologist Paulus Orosius (c. A.D. 385-418) writes in
this regard: "For Nero was the first at Rome to torture and inflict
the penalty of death upon Christians, and he ordered them throughout
all the provinces to be afflicted with like persecution; and in his
attempt to wipe out the very name, he killed the most blessed apostles
79. George Eldon Ladd, A Comrrrmtary on th Revelation of John (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans,
1972), p. 8.
80. Juvenal, Satires 437ff.
81. Martial, Ep@am 11:33.
82. A~okru 5.
83. On the Mantle 4.
84. Antidotej6r ttu Scorpion's Sting 15.
85. Tertullian, ApologY 5, in C. Dodgson, trans., T~tullian, vol. 1 of Apologetic and
Prastisal Treatises, in A Libray of Fathers of the Ho~ Catholic Church (Oxford: Parker, 1842).
Clement of Alexandria 83
of Christ, Peter and Paul. "86
The later convictions of Moses Stuart should be that of the careful
patristics scholar. Stuart originally accepted the late date "evidence"
from Clement, but upon later reflection denied it: "In citing the
testimony of Clement of Alexandria . . . , I have conceded that
Clement probably meant Dornitian, when he speaks of the tyrant
(Tupavvou) as dying, and of John's subsequent return to Ephesus. I
now doubt whether this was his meaning."87 In light of the above
wealth of evidence, it would seem that the better part of wisdom
would opt for the Neronic referent for Clement's nebulous "tyrant."
The Contextual Difilculty
A further matter compounds the problem for late date employment
of Clement. The context following the critical statement cited
above is more easily believable if John were about twenty-five years
younger than the age required in the late date view. In connection
with his returning from banishment under the "tyrant," Clement
informs us of John's activities — activities incredible if by a nonagenarian,
or possibly even a centenarian. Let us cite the passage again:
"When after the death of the tyrant he removed from the island of
Patmos to Ephesus, he used to journey by request to the neighboring
districts of the Gentiles, in some places to appoint bishops, in others
to regulate whole churches, in others to set among the clergy some
one man, it may be, of those indicated by the Spirit. "88
In illustration of his activities, Clement immediately adds to the
account a story in which John, disturbed by a young church leader's
forsaking of the faith, chased him on horseback "with all his might."
Clement records the matter thus: "but when he recognised John as
he advanced, he turned, ashamed, to flight. The other followed with
all his might, forgetting his age, crying, 'Why, my son, dost thou flee
from me, thy father, unarmed, old? Son pity me.' "89 All of this is
quite strenuous missionary activity for a man in his 90s!90 And the
86. Paulus Orosius, The Sewn Books of Hs.stoy Agaznst tb Pagans, book 7, chap. 7, trans.
P. J. Dtierrari; in The Fat/wrs oft/u Church, vol. 50 (Washington, DC: Catholic University
of America Press, 1964), pp. 298-299.
87. Moses Stuart, Comnwnta~ on the Apoca@e, 2 vols. (Andove~ Allen, Merrill, and
Wardwell, 1845) 1 :283 -284n.
88. Clement of Alexandria, Who Is the Rich Mars that Shall be Saw@ 42,
89. Ibid.
90. Farrar noted: "If he lived till the reign of Trajan (Iren. c. Haer. ii. 225; Jer. de k%.
84 BEFORE JERUSALEM FELL
fact that he is said to have forgotten his age does not indicate he may
have been ninety, for Paul calls himself "the aged" while nowhere
near that old (Phile. 9). The whole episode is much more believable
if speaking of a man much younger than in his 90s.
If the story does speak of Domitian's era, it borders on the
incredible. If it does not (and it certainly does not mention Domitian),
then, in terms of geriatric experience, the whole context is easily
to be believed. Indeed, on this basis Ratton afirms that Clement is
"a firm believer in the Neronian date of the Book" because of his
detailed stories ofJohn's strenuous mission activity and his nebulous
reference to "the tyrant. "g
The Cessation of Revelation
Despite the late date advocates' assured convictions as to Clement's
evidence for a Domitianic date for John's banishment, the above
arguments call for a pause and reconsideration. Furthermore, a
careful consideration of the implications of the statement of Clement
now to be given should totally reverse the usefulness of Clement in
our debate, if the above failed that purpose.
In Clement's Mi.dlanies a statement is made that clearly turns
the usefulness of Clement toward early date advocacy. In Book 7 of
this work Clement deals with the perversion of truth by heretics he
calls "Mystagogues of the souls of the impious. " Their error is: "They
do not make a right but a perverse use of the divine words. " He then
states that apostolic revelation has ceased: "For the teaching of our
Lord at His advent, beginning with Augustus and Tiberius, was
completed in the middle of the times of Tiberius. And that of the
apostles, embracing the ministry of Paul, end with Nero. "92 It is
patently clear in the very text originally under question (Who h the
Rich Man? 42), as well as in other places (Miscellanies 6:13), that
Clement. considers the Apostle John as the author of Revelation. And
Illustr. ix. adu. Jovin. i. 14) he must have been nearly ninety-eight. The Chronicon Paschale
says he lived one hundred years and seven months, and pseudo-Chsysostom (de S. Johan.)
that he lived to one hundred and twen~ as also Suidas s. v. Ioanna, and Dorotheus
(Lampe, p. 92)" (Frederick W. Farrar, The EQrb Days of Christiami~ New York Cassell,
1884, p. 403n).
91. J. L. Ratton, Tb Apoca~pse of St. John (London: R. & T. Washbourne, 1912), p.
27.
92. Clement of Alexandria, Misce~~anies 7:17.
Clemwn.t of Alexandria 85
here at Mticellanies 7:17 it is equally plain that he also holds that all
revelation given through the apostles ceased under Nero. How could
he have made this statement if John's Revelation had been written
about 25 years after Nero?
Conclusion
When all the Clementine evidence is considered together, it is
evident that Clement can be discounted as a late date witness: (1)
The reference employed in the argument is vague, at best (it does
not mention Domitian). (2) It demands an incredible situation (a
ninety year old John riding a horse at full gallop). (3) It would
contradict a clear assertion by Clement that all revelation ceased
under Nero. Not only so, but Clement even serves as a positive
external witness to the early date composition of Revelation (in that
Clement holds to the Johannine authorship of Revelation, while
declaring that all revelation ceased under Nero).
And this from a father not far removed in time from Irenaeus
– and one much closer to the region where John labored. Of
Clement's statement regarding "the tyrant" we must concur with
Weiss: "Clement is naturally as ignorant of the name of the wpdwo~
as Origen; but he is undoubtedly in favour of Nero rather than
Domitian."93
93. Bernhard Weiss, A Manual of Introduction to the New Testarrwnt, trans. A. J. K.
Davidson, vol. 2 (New York: Funk and Wagnalls, 1889), p. 51.
6
ADDITIONAL EXTERNAL WITNESSES
The Shepherd of Hermas
The work known as The Shepherd, or The Shepherd of Hermas,
may be indirectly suggestive of an early date for Revelation. The
Shepherd consists of three parts: (1) Vfiiom, (2) A4andate~, and (3)
. Similitudes. Although its value in advancing the early date of Revelation
cannot be presented as conclusive, nevertheless, it possesses a
certain utility due to certain suggestive possibilities. Such caution is
demanded in light of both the nature of its usefulness (as indirect,
circumstantial evidence) and the difficulty of its dating.
Thz Da.k of The Sh@herd
The indeterminate status of the dating of The Shepherd is directly
related to the problem of ascertaining its authorship. Lightfoot's
analysis of the matter will guide our thinking.' Was it written
by (1) the Hermas greeted by Paul in Remans 16:14, as Origen
suggests? Or by (2) the brother of Pius I (c. A.D. 140-150), as the
Muratorian Canon (c. A.D. 180) teaches? Or by (3) some unknown
Hermas who lived in the time of the bishopric of Clement of Rome
(A.D. 90-100), as Zahn, Caspan, and others argue?
Unfortunately, an assured conclusion on the date of The Shepherd
may never be reached. Lightioot's authoritative view is itself
indeterminate: "On the whole we may, though not without diffidence,
adopt (2) the ancient tradition, which is definite and claims to be
almost contemporary, as the safest guide; though confessedly (3) the
modem suggestion has stronger support from internal evidence, such
as it is. "2 Thus, he opts for a date in the era of A.D. 140-150, although
1. Joseph B. Lightfoot and J. R. Harrner, 2%s Apostolic Ilzthm (Grand Rapids: Baker,
1891 1984), pp. 293-294.
2. Ibid., p. 294.
86
Additional Extend Witnases 87
he acknowledges that the internal evidence strongly suggests a date
in the span of A.D. 90-100.
Schaff, on the contrary, is decisively supportive of an early date
for The Shepherd, even allowing that it most probably was written
by the very Hermas mentioned in Remans.3 Lightfoot cites several
writers supportive of the earlier date: Cotelier, Cave, Lardner, Gallandi,
Lumper, Lachmann, Sprinzl.4 More recently still, Lawson,5
Goodspeed,G and others concur in the view that it was written in the
A.D. 90s.
Nevertheless, there are those who argue – and quite persuasively
– for a date earlier even still, a date only a decade and a half
after A.D. 70. Oxford and Cambridge trained scholar Arthur S.
Barnes argues most vigorously for this date.7 Two of his arguments
can be summarized as follows. First, the writer of the Muratorian
Canon (c. A.D. 180) seems to be confused as to the identity of
Hermas:
Pius I, about 150, "changed the house of Pudens into a church, and
gave it precedence over all the other parishes of Rome as the dwelling
of the Bishop, and dedicated it with the title of the Pastor, that is, the
Good Shepherd." This seems to be the original and true story and is
told in the Roman Breviary for his feast on July 11th. The "Acts of
Pastor and Timotheus", which are not authentic but contain some
true traditions, make "Pastor" the brother of Pius, whom he put in
charge of this church. There is the first confusion. The author of the
Muratorian Fragment takes it a bit farther. He says: "the 'Pastor' of
Hermas is not really ancient, for it was written by the brother of Pope
Pius I quite lately". Thus we have a double confusion. The dedication
of the church has been confused with the name of its priest, and he
again has been confused with the name of the book which Hermas
wrote.8
3. Philip Schaff, Hi.rtoy of ttu Christian Church, 8 vols. (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans,
1910 1950) 2:688fT.
4. Llghtfoot and Harmer, Apostolic Fat/wrs, p. 294.
5. John Lawson, A Theologwal and Historical Introduction to tb Apostolic Fathm (New
York: Macmillan, 1961), p. 225.
6. Edgar J. Goodspeed, The Apostolic Fathm (New York Harper, 1950), p. 97; and
idsm., A History of Ear~ Christian Lateratwe (Chicago: University of Chicago, 1942), pp.
47-48.
7. Arthur Stapylton Barnes, Chri.diani& at Rorru in the Apostolic Age (Westport, CT:
Greenwood, 1938 1971), pp. 212tT.
8. Ibid., p. 212. Robinson agrees; John A. T. Robinson, Redating the Nsw T~tarwnt
(Philadelphia: Westminster, 1976), pp. 320K
88 BEFORE JERUSALEM FELL
Second, the earlier date is suggested by its authoritative usage in
Irenaeus, Ongen, Clement of Alexandria, Eusebius, and Jerome (On
th Lives of Illwtriow Men 10).9 Clearly Irenaeus considers it Scripture,
for in Against Heresies (4:20:2) he quotes it (citing Mandates 1:1) as
such. Origen in his commentary on Remans 16:14 says: "I think the
Hermas there mentioned i.e., in Rem. 16 is the writer of the book
called Pmtoq which writing appears to me to be very useful, and as
I suppose, divinely inspired."lo Tertullian, in his pre-Montanist days,
seems to have agreed. 11 In addition, The Shepherd is included in the
Codex Sinaiticus, indicating a strong respect for its authority. 12
It should be recognized, then, that "the history of the ecclesiastical
authority of Herrnas in the East begins with an unbounded
recognition of the same as a book resting on divine revelation." 13
Lightfoot notes this same fact and adds that the book is "in general
circulation in the Eastern and Western Churches, soon after the
middle of the second century." 14 And, thus, "since the universally
admitted requirement for this would be that they were considered to
be the work of at least an associate of the Apostles, a date of about
75 or 80 would be much more likely and more suitable for the subject
of the books in question as the writings of a Christian prophet ." 15
A more recent early date advocate for The Shepherd of Hermas
is John A. T. Robinson. In his bombshell treatise, Retiting th NW
Testament, he sets forth a strong case for an early date for The
Shepherd:
With the Epistle of Barnabas must be considered its nearest associate,
the Shepherd of Hermas. This again has regularly been placed in the
middle of the second century, but solely on the ground of one piece
of external evidence, the Muratorian Fragment on the Canon. . . .
. . . .
9. Schti, Histoy 2:687n. See also Lightfwt and Harmer, Apostolic Fathers, p. 296.
10. Cited fmm Moses Stuart, Conrmentay on the Apoca~@e, 2 VOIS. (Andove~ Allen,
Mornll, and Wardwell, 1845) 1:120. See also Origen, Matthew 1421; On t/ze Ps-incijles
411.
11. De Orutionar 16.
12. Lightfmt and Harmer, Apostolic Fatbrs, p. 294.
13. Theodor Zahn, Der Hirt &s Het-tnas (Gotha: 1868). Cited in Schaff, Histoy 2:691
n. 1.
14. Lightfoot and Harmer, Apostohc Fathers, p. 293.
15. Ibid, p. 213.
Additional External Witnases 89
With regard to Hermas in particular there are good grounds for
questioning its statements. Thus Irenaeus, who resided in Rome less
than twenty years after thedeath of Pius, quotes the opening sentence
of the first Mandate of the Shepherd as "scripture" Against Heresies
4:34:2, which would scarcely belikely ifit was known to have been
composed within living memory. Not much later Tertullian strongly
disparages Hermas in contrast with Hebrews and its seems improbable
that he would not have deployed against it the argument of its
late composition. Origen who freely cites the Shepherd as scripture,
attributes it indeed in his Commentary on Romaru to the first-century
Hermas greeted by Paul in Rem. 16.14.16
A persuasive case can be made from the internal evidence which
is decidedly against not only the Muratorian Canon's statement as
to the date of The Shepherd, but even the date of A.D. 95 or 96, as
well. Regarding the Muratorian Canon's identification of Hermas as
the brother of Pius of Rome, it should be noted that if the identification
is correct, a most remarkable situation exists. In defiance to an
expectation based on the assertion of the Muratorian Canon, Hermas,
a foster-child sold into slavery in Rome ( l%ion 1:1: 1), wuer
mention-s hti alleged brother Piw, bishop of Rome. And this despite the fact
he does mention other family members. Moreover, nowhere in The
Shepherd is there any indication that there exists anything approaching
a monarchical episcopate – whether in Rome where Pius would
have been such (Vision 2:4:3) or elsewhere. He speaks, instead, of "the
elders that preside over the church" (Vision 2:4:3). The explanation
suggested above by Barnes and others as to the Canon's confusion
suitably accounts for these matters.
Furthermore, in Vii"on 2:4:2ff. Hermas is told to write two books.
One of these is to be sent to Clement who in turn "was to send it to
foreign cities, for this is his duty." The other was to be sent to
"Grapte," apparently a deaconess. 17 As Edmundson18 and Robinson19
carefully demonstrate, this implies Clement's role as a subordinate
secretarial figure. Obviously, then, The Shepherd could not
have been written later than about A.D. 90 after Clement was
16. Robinson, Redating, pp. 319-320.
17. George Edmundson, Th Church in Rorw in the First CentuT (London: Longman's,
Green, 1913), pp. 204.
18. Ibid., pp. 203~
19. Robinson, Reahting, pp. 321 K
90 EIE~ORE JERUSALEM FELL
appointed bishop of Rome.20
Still further, in l%ion3:5:l Hermasnotes that''the apostles and
bishops and teachers and deacons, who walked after the holiness of
God, and exercised their ofiice of bishop and teacher and deacons in
purity and sanctity for the elect of God, some of them already fallen
on sleep, and others still living." This strongly suggests (with Similitude
9: 16) that some of the earliest church leaders were still living at
the time The Shepherd was written. This is more suggestive of a time
before the 90s. Robinson suggests about A.D. 85.21
Tb Use@lness of T/w Sh@.erd
The possible usefulness of The Shepherd of Hermas for early
date advocacy is strong especially a~ the early date of an era in the
A.D. 80s be taken, but also even if the A.D. 90-95 era is assumed, for
the following reason.
Many competent scholars detect evidence of Hermas's knowledge
of Revelation. Moses Stuart states: "I can scarcely doubt, that
the reading of the Apocalypse suggested to the writer of this book the
form of his work."22 In the authoritative series Th Anti-Nicene Fath-ws,
A. Cleveland Coxe boldly claims that Revelation "is quoted in Hennas
freely .y'23 R. H. Charles in his important critical commentary on
Revelation holds quite strongly to the use of Revelation by Hermas:
"In the Shepherd of Hermas, Vi.J. ii. 2.7, there is a very probable
connection with our author." His note on this statement fills in the
data leading to this conviction of a "very probable" connection:
The fact that Hermas used the same imagery as the Apocalypse
may be rightly used as evidence that he knew it. Thus the Church,
l%. ii. 4, is represented by a woman (cfl Rev 12:1 sqq.); the enemy
of the Church by a beast (13q@ov), 1%. lv. 6-10, Rev 13: out of the
20. The date of Clement's bishopric is debated, but within a generally agreed upon
time-frame of between A.D. 85 to 92. Edmundson opts for an A.D. 92 appointment
(Church in Rovu, pp. 188, 241). Arguing for a date somewhere between A.D. 86 to 88 are
Robinson, Redating, p. 322; Joseph B. Lightfmt, 77ze A@rdic Fahm, 2 VOIS. (Macmillan:
1889) 1 :343; and Adolf Hamack, Geschichte &r Alterchtitlickn Litteratar bti Eu.sebius (Leipzig:
1893-1897), p. 718. We shall return to this matter later.
21. Robinson, Rea!zting, p. 322.
22. Stuart, A,bacu@e 1:113.
23. Coxe, in Alexander Roberts and James Donaldson, eds., me An&Nicsnz Fathers
ANF, 10 VOIS. (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, late 19th c. 1975) 5:600.
Additional External Witnesses 91
mouth of the beasts proceed fiery locusts, Vis. iv. 1, 6, Rev 9:3:
whereas the foundation stones of the Heavenly Jerusalem bear the
names of the Twelve Apostles, Rev 21:14, and those who overcome
are made pillars in the spiritual temple, Rev 3:12, in Hermas the
apostles and other teachers of the Church form the stones of the
heavenly tower erected by the archangels, W-. iii. 5. 1. The faithful
in both are clothed in white and are given crowns to wear, Rev 6:11
etc., 2: 10; 3:10; Hermas, Sire. viii. 2. 1, 3.24
Westcott and Hug agree,25 and Swete comments that "it is hardly too
bold to say with Bishop Westcott that 'the symbolism of the Apocalypse
reappears in the Shepherd.' "26
In more recent times noted critics concur in this assessment; we
mention but a few. Patristics scholar, Edgar J. Goodspeed, states
that Hermas is "clearly acquainted with the Revelation of John."27
John Lawson and Guthrie agree. 28 Mounce also leans in this direction:
"While such parallels between The Shepherd and Revelation
may indicate nothing more than that both books drew from a common
apocalyptic tradition, the possibility that Hermas may have
known the Apocalypse is by no means precluded."29
If a date in the A.D. 80s be given to The Shepherd (as is most
plausible), and if the apparent allusions to Revelation in it are
expressive of its dependency upon Revelation (as certainly seems the
case), then Revelation influenced the writing of The Shepherd in the
late A.D. 80s. The Shepherd was certainly written somewhere around
Rome, for it mentions Clement (undoubtedly the Clement of Rome
because of the recognition his name is expected to carry, cf. Vision
2:4). For John's Revelation to have been written, to have been copied
(laboriously by hand), to have made its way to Rome by the 80s, and
to have influenced the writing of another work, would be strong
24. R. H. Charles, Thz Rmelation ofSt. John, 2 vols. International Critical Commentary
(Edinburgh: T. &T. Clark, 1920) 1 :xcvii.
25. B. F. Westcott, A General Sumey of the Histoy of th Canon ~ the Nw Testament, 3d
ed. (London: Macmillan, 1870), p. 181; Johann Leonhard Hug, Introduction to the New
~stament, trans. David Fosdick, Jr. (Andover: Gould and Newman, 1836), p. 659.
26. Henry Barclay Swete, hntia~ on Revelation (Grand Rapids: Kregel, 1906
1977), p. CX. He not only mentions Westcott in this regard, but Lardner as well.
27. Goodspeed, Apostolti Fathm, p. 97.
28. Lawson, Apostolic Fattwrs, p. 220; Donald Guthrie, New Testmt Introduction, 3d
ed. (Downers Grove, IL: Inter-Varsity Press, 1970), pp. 931-932.
29. Robert H. Mounce, The Book of Revelation. New International Commentary on the
New Testament (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1977), p. 37.
92 BEFORE JERUSALEM FELL
evidence that it existed a good deal of time before A.D. 85+. It would,
thus, be evidence against a date of c. A.D. 95 and supportive of a
pre-A.D. 70 date.
Papias of Hierapolis
Papias, Bishop of Hierapolis (c. A.D. 60-130), in Phrygia, Asia
Minor, is reputed to have been a disciple of the Apostle John and a
ftiend of Polycarp. 30 As such he would be an extremely early and
valuable witness to historical matters of the sort with which we are
dealing. Unfortunately, none of his written work is extant today. Our
knowledge of his sayings is sparse, being preserved in a few brief
excerpts in Eusebius and several other early fathers. His major work,
Exposition of the Lord's Oracles, seems to have been lost sometime
around the year 1218.31
There is, however, a fascinating and important piece of evidence
purportedly from Papias that is quite revealing. Late date advocate
Swete dealt with this evidence in his treatment of the Apostle John's
extreme longevity. His comments are worth quoting in full, not only
because of the potential value of their contents, but because of their
being provided in the work of such a competent late date advocate:
A MS. of Georgius Hamartolus (cent. IX.) alleges the authority of
Papias, in the second book of his work, for the statement that John
the son of Zebedee was martyred by the Jews, and the reference to
Papias is now supported by an extract printed by Dr C. De Boor from
an Ofiord MS. of the 7th or 8th century, an epitome probably based
upon the Chronicle of Philip of Side (cent. V).
30. The relationship of Papias to John is disputed, although it seems that most
scholars accept the ancient accounts of his friendship with John. See Schaff, History
2:697ff.
31. Cfi Schaff, History 2:695n; and Elgin S. Moyer, Who WJ.S Who in Chzrch Hkto~
(Chicago Moody, 1962), p. 319.
Additional External Witnesses 93
With this testimony before us it is not easy to doubt that Papias made
some such statement, for the suggestion of a lacuna, offered by Bishop
Lightfoot in 1875, is now scarcely tenable, though it has been lately
revived by Harnack. But if Papias made it, the question remains
whether he made it under some misapprehension, or merely by way
of expressing his conviction that the prophecy of Mic. x.39 had found
a literal fulfillment. Neither explanation is very probable in view of
the early date of Papias. He does not, however, affh-m that the
brothers suffered at the same time: the martyrdom of John at the
hand of the Jews might have taken place at any date before the last
days ofJerusalem.32
If these two pieces of data are in fact from Papias (as Swete,
Lightfoot,33 and other competent scholars are inclined to believe),
they provide for those who hold to the Apostolic authorship of
Revelation strong external evidence for a pre-A.D. 70 composition
of Revelation. In that the excerpts, however, are not indisputably
genuine, they cannot be reckoned conclusive. They serve merely as
probable indicators – indicators that fit well with the mass of evidence
to come.
The Muratorian Canon
In 1740 L. A. Muratori made his celebrated discovery and publication
of a manuscript fragment that subsequently came to be
known as "Canon Muratorianus."34
The portion of this important manuscript dealing with the canon
of Scripture claims to have been written by someone who was a
contemporary of Pius, bishop of Rome, sometime between A.D. 127
and 157. R. L. Harris notes (by reference to Westcott) that "the date
of the Canon is admitted to be close to 170 A.D. "35 This date was
held earlier by Schaff, as well.36 Lightfoot and Harmer argue that it
32. Swete, Revelation, pp. clxxix-clxxx
33. Lightfoot and Harmer, &ostolic Fathas, pp. 519, 531.
34. F. F. Bruce, The Booh and the Parchrmmts, 3rd ed. (Westwood, NJ: Revell, 1963),
p. 109. According to James J. L. Ratton, the relevant portion of this fragment was
published by Muratori in Antiq. Ital., 3:854. See Ratton, The Apoca~pse of St. John
(London: R. & T. Washboume, 1912), p. 28. It is presently housed in the Ambrosian
Library of Milan. It is an eighth century palimpsest and is designated: Cod. Ambros. J
101 sup.
35. R. Laird Harris, Ttu Inspiration and Canonicip of t)u Bible, 2nd ed. (Grand Rapids:
Zondervan, 1969), p. 214.
36. Scha& Histo~ 1:776.
94 BEFORE JERUSALEM FELL
was written nearer A.D. 180.37 Others believe Caius, Presbyter of
Rome, wrote it about the year A.D. 200.38 If written by Caius, it
should be noted that he may well have been a student of Irenaeus.3g
But even if Caius did not compose it, it most certainly was drawn
up by a writer from the latter half of the second century, the very era
of Irenaeus.a As Schaff observes, it is "the oldest Latin church
document of Rome, and of very great importance for the history of
the canon. "41
The witness of this manuscript virtually demands the early date
for Revelation. The relevant portion of the document states that "the
blessed Apostle Paul, following the rule of his predecessor John,
writes to no more than seven churches by name. " Later we read:
c~ohn too, indeed, in the Apocalypse, although he writes to only
seven churches, yet addresses all. "42 This ancient writer clearly teaches
that John Precedd Paul in writing letters to seven churches. And it is
universally agreed among historians and theologians that Paul died
before A.D. 70, either in A.D. 67 or 68.43 This is a most important
piece of early evidence with which to reckon.
If the common late date interpretation of Irenaeus is accepted,
the Muratorian Canon records a contemporary tradition contrary to
and despite Irenaeus. If we adopt the most reasonable reconstruction
of Irenaeus and accept the clari@ing of the ambiguity in Clement,
as presented heretofore, then we have a trio of harmonious evidences,
all from the same era.
Tertullian
Quintus Septimius Florens Tertullian (c. A.D. 160-220), the first
major theologian to write in Latin, lived in Carthage and began
writing around A.D. 196. He is most famous for his ApologJJ, but is
37. Lightfoot and Harmer, Apostolic Fathem, p. 293.
38. Tim Dowley, Esrdrnax.r Handbook to the HistoU of ChristiuniU (Herts, England: Lion,
1977), p. 105. See also next note.
39. AiVF 5:599,603.
40. F. F. Bruce, New 7Zstan-wat HistoU (Garden City, NY Doubleday, 1969), p. 366.
41. Schaff, Histoy 1:776.
42. ANF 5:603. The seven churches addressed by Paul would be Rome, Corinth,
Galatia, Ephesus, Philippi, Colossae, and Thessalonica.
43. A. T. Robertson, "Paul" in International Stxmdard Bibk Encyclopedia, 1st ed. (Grand
Rapids: Eerdmans, 1915) 3:2287; Richard Longenecker, Th Msmstry and Message of Paul
(Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1971), p. 86.
Additional Ext+mal Witnesses 95
also known for his five volume Against Marcion, his Agaimt Praxea-s (in
which he developed the doctrine of the Trinity), and other lesser
works. His era briefly overlaps that of Irenaeus.
The statement of Tertullian that is of significance to our inquiry
is found in his Excluswn of Heretics. It strongly suggests that John's
banishment occurred at the same time Peter and Paul suffered martyrdom.
In his Against Jovinianunz, Jerome certainly understood Tertullian
to state that John was banished by Nero.w And it is diflicult
today to read Tertullian's statement and not come to such a conclusion.
Tertullian's comment is as follows:
But if thou art near to Italy, thou hast Rome, where we also have an
authority close at hand. What an happy Church is that! on which the
Apostles poured out all their doctrine, with their blood: where Peter
had a like Passion with the Lord; where Paul bath for his crown the
same death with John; where the Apostle John was plunged into
boiling oil, and suffered nothing, and was afterwards banished to an
island.45
Not only is this reference compellingly suggestive of at least
Tertullian's acceptance of the fact, but there are converging lines of
evidence that deepen our conviction that Tertullian did in fact mean
what has been suggested. Hort found it noteworthy that when Tertullian
speaks of Domitian's evil in the fifth chapter of his Apolog,Y, he
does not mention anything about John's banishment or suffering
under him.% Of course, such an ex silentio is not of the highest order
of argument. Yet Hort's observation becomes especially remarkable
in light of the prior Tertullianic statement, which unites the three
Apostles under the Neronic persecution. All of this becomes all the
more intriguing when even Eusebius follows suit in his Evangelical
Dern.onstration (3:5). Hort noted that Eusebius "groups in a single
44. Jerome, Agfsimt Jouinianwn 1:26. See Swete, Revelation, p. c. Robinson says: '<Jerome
in quoting the passage interprets Tertullian to mean that John's suffering, like that of
Peter and Paul, occurred under Nero – despite his own acceptance from Eusebius'
Chrontile of the Domitianic date" (Robinson, Redating, pp. 223-224n). See also T. Randell,
"Revelation, " in vol. 22 of Z7u Pulpit Commentary (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, rep. 1950),
p. v.
45. Tertullian, Exclurion of Hnetizs 36. See Robinson, Redating, p. 223n, where he
speaks of K. A. Eckhardt's "strong defence of Tertullian's reliability at this point."
46. F. J. A. Hort, The Apoca@pse of St. John: Z-III (London: Macmillan, 1908), pp.
xv-xvii.
96 BEFORE JERUSALEM FELL
sentence Peter's crucifixion at Rome, Paul's beheading, and John's
banishment to an island."47 The sentence in question read: KcM'
Ii%.poG 62 dm' 'Pc@q< KCYTa K@Cd~G cmavpoikczl, llafiM< m
\ &ror&@ral, 'I@awq< TE VI@ zrapa&60zal.
Stuart initially granted Tertullian to be a Domitianic reference,
but later consideration persuaded him otherwise: "Now it strikes me,
that Tertullian plainly means to class Peter, Paul, and John together,
as having suffered at nearly the same time and under the same
emperor. I concede that this is not a construction absolutely necessary;
but I submit it to the candid, whether it is not the most
probable."w
In a similar vein, historian Herbert B. Workman in his classic
study, Persecution in tb Early Church, draws the following conclusions
from the Tertullianic evidence: "St. John's banishment to Patmos
was itself a result of the great persecution of Nero. Hard labour for
life in the mines and quarries of certain islands, especially Sardinia,
formed one of the commonest punishments for Christians. . . . He
lived through the horrors of two great persecutions, and died quietly
in extreme old age at Ephesus."49
Furthermore, it would seem that Tertullian's reference to an
attempted oil martyrdom ofJohn is quite plausible historically. This
is due to the very nature of the Neronic persecution of Christians in
A.D. 64. Roman historian Tacitus describes the gruesome scene – a
scene so evilly horrific that, even though Tacitus disparaged Christians
as "detested for their abominable crimes,"5° he was moved to
sympathy for the Christians by Nero's actions: "And their death was
aggravated with mockeries, insomuch that, wrapped in the hides of
wild beasts, they were tom to pieces by dogs, or fastened to crosses
to be set on fire, that when the darkness fell they might be burned to
illuminate the night. . . . Whence it came about that, though the
47. Ibid., p. xvii. See also Robert Jamieson, A. R. Fausset, and David Brown, A
Commentary, Crttzkal and Explanatory, on the Old and New Tatarnenti, 2 vols. (Harttiord:
Scranton, n.d.) 2:548.
48. Stuart, Apoca~pse 1 :284n.
49. Herbert B. Workman, Persecution in th Ear~ Church (Oxford: Oflord University
Press, 1906 1980), pp. 18, 19.
50. In this reference Tacitus apparently reflects the current suspicion that Christians
engaged in lewd, promiscuous "love feasts" (the early Agape Feast), had cannibalistic
services (the Lord's Supper being the blood and body of Christ), and worshiped the head
of an *.
Additional External Witnesses 97
victims were guilty and deserved the most exemplary punishment, a
sense of pity was aroused by the feeling that they were sacrificed not
on the altar of public interest, but to satisfj the cruelty of one man."51
Such a spectacle surely would have involved the dipping of the
victims in oil to provide a lasting illumination of fire. Thus, "if there
is some foundation for the early tradition of the oil-martyrdom of
John at Rome, or at Ephesus, it would naturally point to the Neronian
persecution, in which Christians were covered with inflammable
material and burned as torches."52
Schaff notes that "Tertullian's legend of the Roman oil-martyrdom
ofJohn seems to point to Nero rather than to any other emperor,
and was so understood by Jerome (Adv. Jovin. 1.26) ."53 Elsewhere
Tertullian mentions the martyrdom of the apostles Peter and Paul
at Rome, and states: "At Rome Nero was the first who stained with
blood the rising faith."54 Weiss is convinced that "Tertullian too,
according to Scorp., 15, certainly refers the "relegatio in insulam," of
which he speaks in Be Praac. Haer., 36, to the time of Nero, and was
already understood in this sense by Hieron., adv. Jovin, 1, 26."55
Thus, again, we have quite suggestive evidence – evidence at
least partially overlapping Irenaeus's era – that John suffered under
Nero. The external evidence is shifting its weight to an early date the
more carefully we scrutinize the material.
Origen
Ongenes Adamantius of Alexandria (c. A.D. 185-254) is one of
the indefatigable giants of early Church history. He was a disciple of
Clement of Alexandria. As noted earlier, Origen is usually cited as
among the leading external witnesses to a late date for Revelation.
But the evidence drawn from his writings is very similar in nature to
that of Clement of Alexandria's: at best, it is ambiguous; and it is
quite capable of being interpreted in a way favorable to the early
date position.
Origen's debated statement is: "The King of the Remans, as
51. Antis 15:44.
52. Schaff, Hi.rtoy 1:428.
53. Ibid., 1:428-429 n. 3.
54. Tertullian, S'co@iace 15.
55. Bernhard Weiss, A Manual of Introduction tQ the New Testament, trans. A. J. K.
Davidson, vol. 2 (New York: Funk and Wagnalls, 1889) p. 51.
98 BEFORE JERUSALEM FELL
tradition teaches, condemned John, who bore testimony, on account
of the word of truth, to the isle of Patmos. John, moreover, teaches
us things respecting his testimony i.e., martyrdom, without say'ing
who condemned him when he utters these things in the Apocalypse.
He seems also to have seen the Apocalypse . . . in the island."56
Needless to say, early date advocates find the use of Ongen
questionable, in that it is not at all clear that he had in mind
Domitian as "the King of the Remans." Indeed, late date advocates
are sometimes less than convincing themselves. Swete observes of the
witness provided by Origen and Clement of Alexandria: "It will be
seen that the Alexandria testimony is not explicit; the Emperor who
banished John is not named either by Clement or Origen. But in the
absence of evidence to the contrary they may be presumed to have
followed in this respect the tradition of South Gaul and Asia Minor."
57 Charles argues similarly: "Neither in Clement nor Origen is
Domitian's name given, but it may be presumed that it was in the
mind of these writers."58
Early date proponent Hort states of this situation: "The absence
of a name in both Clement and Origen certainly does not prove that
no name was known to them. But the coincidence is curious."59
Stuart sees the absence as more than "curious" and more than merely
lacking the character of proof for late date advocacy:
This remarkable passage deserves speciaJ notice. We cannot suppose
Origen to have been ignorant of what Irenaeus said in V. 30. . . .
Yet Origen does not at all refer to Irenaeus, as exhibiting anything
decisive with regard to which Roman emperor it was who banished
John. He does not even appeal to tradition, as according with the
report of Irenaeus. Moreover he notes expressly, that John has not
himself decided this matter in the Apocalypse. . . . If now he regarded
the opinion of Irenaeus as decisive in relation to this subject,
how could he have fiiiled, on such an occasion, of appealing to it? . . .
We cannot well come to any conclusion here, than that Ongen knew
of no way in which this matter could be determined.m
56. Ongen, Matthew 16:6. Citation can be found in Charles, Revelation 1 :xeiii; Swete,
Raelation, p. xcix; Stuart, Apoca~pse 1:271.
57. Swete, Revelation, p. xcix n. 2.
58. Charles, Revelatwn 1 :xciii.
59. Hort, Apoca@pse, p. xv.
60. Stuart, Apoca~pse 1:271,272.
Additional External Witnesses 99
Stuart's observation is quite reasonable – much more so than the
presumptive guesses handed down as assured observations. His comment
is especially reasonable since Origen does mention that Herod
beheaded John's brother James. It may well be that Origen's statement
depends not on an Irenaean tradition, but upon a Tertullianic
one, as suggested by Robinson.61 Or even better, perhaps, if our
analysis of the evidence from Clement of Alexandria be correct, it
could be that Origen picked up on his master, Clement, who seems
to teach that John was exiled under Nero.
It is of further interest that Origen calls this unnamed emperor
"the King of the Remans." Ratton understands this reference to be
indicative of Nero:
Throughout the East the Julian Caesars were looked upon as a royal
line and hailed as Kings. . . . Nero was the last of them. After him
came the successful generals raised to the purple by their legions.
They took the title of Caesar, but prefmed it to their own names.
They reigned by virtue of their leadership of the Army. The offkial
title of Domitian illustrates both these points – "Imperator Caesar Domitianus
Augustus. "62
Be that as it may, we come again upon a widely-acclaimed late date
witness which is wholly unconvincing.
Victorious
Victorious (d. c. A.D. 304), bishop of Pettau (or Petavionensis),
is another of the mainstays of the late date argument from tradition.
Victorious's relevant statement is found in his Commentq on the
Apocabp.se at Revelation 10:11. He states that: "When John said
these things he was in the island of Patmos, condemned to the labour
of the mines by Caesar Domitian. There, therefore, he saw the
Apocalypse; and when grown old, he thought that he should at length
receive his quittance by suffering, Domitian being killed, all his
judgments were discharged. And John being dismissed from the
mines, thus subsequently delivered the same Apocalypse which he
had received from God."63
It is abundantly clear that Victorious, a pre-Eusebian witness,
61. Robinson, Redating, p. 223.
62. Ratton, A@ca@e, p. 29.
63. ANF 7:353.
100 BEFORE JERUSALEM FELL
taught that John was banished by Domitian. That which is striking
about this traditional evidence, however, is that John, who was
doubtless well into his 90s, could be condemned to the mines:
Inevitably, therefore, when Domitian began his policy of persecution
in 96, St. John must have been somewhere between ninety and a
hundred years old. We are asked to believe that at that great age he
was able to stand the journey as a prisoner from Ephesus to
Rome – that is possible, for St. Polycarp stood it – to go through a
trial before the Emperor; to be scourged publicly and cruelly in the
Forum; to be banished to Patmos and to work under the lash in the
mines; and, after having endured all this, to return to Ephesus still
possessed of enough vigour to . . . reorganize the Churches of Asia
and to survive, in spite of all this activity, for several years more.64
This difficulty is similar to that expressed above regarding Clement
of Alexandria. Such difficulties tax to the very limit the credibility of
the reference.
The Acts of John
There is also possible evidence to be garnered from the apocryphal
The Acts ofJohn. In this work – which is mentioned by Eusebius,
Epiphanies, Augustine, and Photius – there is the establishment of
a Domitianic exile, to be sure. But the rationale for the exile is
suggestive of a prior publication of Revelation. And it could be that
John was banished twice, once under Nero and later under Domitian
(which would explain the two traditions of a Neronic and Domitianic
exile). In Tb Acts ofJohn we read:
And the fame of the teaching of John was spread abroad in Rome;
and it came to the ears of Domitian that there was a certain Hebrew
in Ephesus, John by name, who spread a report about the seat of
empire sic of the Remans, saying that it would quickly be rooted
out, and that the kingdom of the Remans would be given over to
another. And Domitian, troubled by what was said, sent a centurion
with soldiers to seize John, and bring him. . . . Later when John
appeared before Domitian, we read: And Domitian, astonished at all
the wonders, sent him away to an island, appointing for him a set
time.
And straightway John sailed to Patmos.65
64. Barnes, Chri.rtiani& at Rmw, p. 166.
65. See ANF 8:560-562.
Additional External Witnesses 101
It would seem that this statement implies the publication of Revelation
(what other Johannine work could be interpreted to indicate the
overthrow of Rome?) prior to his banishment by Domitian. Why not
in Nero's reign, as indicated in other traditions?
Eusebius Pamphili
Eusebius (c. A.D. 260-A.D. 340), Bishop of Caesarea in Palestine,
is known as "the Father of Church History" due to his important
and well-presemed work entitled Ecclesiastical Histo~. Because of the
clarity of his position on the matter (it is well-preserved in its original
language and unambiguous), the stature of his person (he was a court
adviser to Emperor Constantine, a prolific writer, and the author of
a rather thorough Church history), and the nature of his work (he
researched his history in writings no longer extant), he is universally
acclaimed by late date advocates as a Domitianic witness.
In his Ecclesiastical Htitoy, at the very section which is cited as
late date evidence by Swete and Charles, to name but two leading
late date advocates,66 we read:
When Domitian had given many proofs of his great cruelty and had
put to death without any reasonable trial no small number of men
distinguished at Rome by family and career, and had punished without
a cause myriads of other notable men by banishment and confiscation
of their property, he finally showed himself the successor of
Nero's campaign of hostility to God. He was the second to promote
persecution against us, though his father, Vespasian, had planned no
evil against us.
At this time, the story goes, the Apostle and Evangelist John was still
alive, and was condemned to live in the island of Patmos for his
witness to the divine word. At any rate Irenaeus, writing about the
number of the name ascribed to the anti-Christ in the so-called
Apocalypse of John, states this about John in so many words in the
fifth book against Heresies.67
As we analyze the weight of this evidence, we must bear in mind
two problems: (1) Traditions had already been well established by
Eusebius's time. And (2) unfortunately, Eusebius is "by no means
very critical and discerning, and is far inferior in literary talent and
66. Swete, Revelation, p. xcix; Charles, Revelation 1 :xciii.
67. Eusebius, Ecclesiastical History 3:17-18.
102 BEFORE JERUSALEM FELL
execution to the works of the great classical historians."s8 Consequently,
"it is needless to quote later writers who say the same, for it
is probable that most if not all of them derived their belief from this
passage of Irenaeus."sg Torrey adamantly states of the post-lrenaean,
late date traditions: "the ultimate source in every case are
the statements of Irenaeus. "7° In fact, regarding Eusebius we must
realize that he patently declares his dependency upon Irenaeus in
this matter.71 Whatever difficulties there may be with Irenaeus (see
previous discussion), such must necessarily apply to Eusebius, who
clearly echoes his utterance.
Yet, there are some perplexing difficulties in the accounts in the
Eusebian corpus, even apart from his Irenaean foundation. Let us
briefly survey these problems.
In the first place, despite Eusebius's express dependence upon
Irenaeus in this area, we should remember that Eusebius disagrees
with Irenaeus on an extremely important and intimately related
question. And this disagreement is despite Irenaeus's claim to have
conversed with someone who knew John. Eusebius doubts Irenaeus's
position that John the Apostle wrote Revelation:
Thus the recognized writing of Clement is well known and the works
of Ignatius and Polycaip have been spoken o~ and of Papias five
treatises are extant. . . . These are also mentioned by Irenaeus as
though his only writing, for he says in one place, "To these things also
Papias, the hearer of John, who was a companion of Polycarp and
one of the ancients, bears witness in writing in the fourth of his books,
for five books were composed by him." So says Irenaeus. Yet Papias
himsel$ according to the preface of his treatises, makes plain that he
had in no way been a hearer and eyewitness of the sacred Apostles.
. . .
It is here worth noting that Papias twice counts the name of John,
and reckons the first John with Peter and James and Matthew and
the other Apostles, clearly meaning the evangelist, but by changing
his statement places the second with the others outside the number
of the Apostles, putting Aristion before him and clearly calling him a
68. SchaK, Htitoy 1:28.
69. William Henry Simcox, The Revelatwn of St. John Divim. Cambridge Bible for
Schools and Colleges (Cambridge University Press, 1898), p. xiii.
70. Charles Cutler Torrey, ?% Apoca@e ofJohn (New Haven: Yale, 1958), p. 78.
71. See Ecdesiastiad Htitory 3:18 and 5:8.
Additional Ex.%mnal Witnesses 103
presbyter. This confirms the truth of the story of those who have said
that there were two of the same name in Asia, and that there are two
tombs at Ephesus both still called John's. This calls for attention: jr
it k fwobable that the second (unless anyone prefer the former) saw the
revelation which passes under th nnme ofJohn. 72
To the unprejudiced mind it must be somewhat disconcerting to
discover that the evidence from Eusebius is internally self-contradictory.
For Eusebius twice establishes the Apostle's longevity based on
Irenaeus's confident statement that he talked with an eyewitness of
the Apostle (i.e., Polycarp) who says John wrote Revelation while
exiled by Domitian. 73 But in another place he discounts Irenaeus's
teachings that Papias heard John and that John wrote Revelation. If
Eusebius believed the one report, why not the other? The two issues
— (1) that the Apostle John wrote Revelation (2) during Domitian's
reign — are bound up together in Irenaeus. To doubt one
necessarily would seem to entail the doubting of the other.
In the second place, Eusebius differs with Jerome in his references
to the nature of John's nonagenarian activity in Ephesus after
his returning from exile. Eusebius wholeheartedly endorses Clement
of Alexandria's (incredible) account that John not only travelled
about the region of Ephesus appointing bishops and reconciling
whole churches, but also that while on horseback John chased with
all of his might a young man.74 Jerome (c. A.D. 340-420) alters
Eusebius's and Clement's accounts by adding that John was too
weak and had to be carried from church to church.75 Jerome, it
seems, is a little more careful in judging the plausibility of evidence.
Finally, Eusebius contradicts himself in his writings on the banishment
of John. It is clear in his Ecclesiastical History that he believes
John was banished under Dornitian. But in Evangelical Demonstrations,
he speaks of the execution of Peter and Paul in the same sentence
with the banishment ofJohn.76 This is clearly suggestive of a contem-
72. Ibid. 3:38:5; 3:291, 2, 5, 6. Emphasis mine.
73. Ibid. 3:181-3; 5:%5.
74. Ibid. 3:23:5K.
75. Epistle to the Galatiam 46.
76. Three scholars who have deemed this as contradictory are: F. N. Lee, "Revelation
and Jerusalem" (Brisbane, Australia by the author, 1985) sect. 22; A. R. Fausset, in
Jamieson, Fausset, Brown, Commt.mkny 2:5@, and P. S. Desprez, ?7u Apoca~pse Fs@/2d,
2d ed. (London: Longman, Brown, Green, Longmans, 1855), p. 5.
104 BEFORE JERUSALEM FELL
poraneousness of events. Consequently, it indicates that when he
wrote Evangelical Demonstrations, he was convinced of a Neronic banishment
of John.
Thus, again we discover that one of the leading witnesses from
tradition for the late date of Revelation is not all that solid a piece of
evidence.
Epiphanies of Salamis
Epiphanies (c. A.D. 315-403) was elected the bishop of Salamis,
Cyprus, in about A.D. 367, and was an intimate friend of Jerome.
He lacks the learned reputation of some of the noted fathers of the
first centuries, but he apparently was widely read.
Epiphanies is noted for his unique witness to the banishment of
John: he states twice that it was during the emperorship of Claudius.77
He says that John wrote his Gospel "pEd njv adrofi hnd q<
flcfrpov ~navo60v, Z@ hi ~aw%ov yEvop@v Izabapoc." Even
more to our point, he wrote of the Revelation: "flpopqz&60avro< &
@vol< KAav6ov . . . 6ElKVVpiVOV rofi Kara njv 'AnoKcih~v
f16yov npopqnKoiY' (i.e., "who prophesied in the time of Claudius
. . . the prophetic word according to the Apocalypse being disclosed").
A number of commentators and classicists see Epiphanies's statement
not so much as a palpably absurd tradition, as a careless
designation. Some scholars have suggested that Epiphanies may
have used another of Nero's names, rather than his more common
one. Hort suggests that Epiphanies may have been basing his information
on Hippolytus (c. A.D. 170-236), and that he may have
meant the notorious Nero: "But as one of his names i.e., one of
Claudius's names was Nero, so also our Nero was likewise a Claudius,
and is often called on inscriptions Nero Claudius or Nero Claudius
Caesar. It seems probable therefore that, whatever Epiphanies may
have meant, his authority meant and perhaps said Nero."78 Other
scholars who agree with an assessment such as Hort's include Moffat,
Guthrie, Robinson, and Mounce,79 to name but a few.
77. Hem.sizs 51:12, 33.
78. Hort, Apoca@pse, p. xviii.
79. James Moffatt, The Revelation of St. John ttu Divine, in W. R. Nicoll, cd., Englishman's
Greek 72&znwnt, vol. 5 (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, rep. 1980), p. 505; Guthrie, Zntrodudkm,
p. 957; Robinson, Redzting, p. 22* and Mounce, Revelation, p. 31.
Additional External Witwsses 105
It clearly is the case that Epiphanies stands solidly in the early
date tradition. It is extremely doubtful that he simply created his
"evidence" de nwo.
Jerome
The great monastic scholar Jerome (A.D. 340-420) was proficient
in a number of languages. Pope Damascus directed him to produce
a new Latin translation of Scripture, which is now known as the
Vulgate.
In his Against Jovinianum we read that John was "a prophet, for
he saw in the island of Patmos, to which he had been banished by
the Emperor Domitian as a martyr for the Lord, an Apocalypse
containing the boundless mysteries of the future. Tertullian, moreover,
relates that he was sent to Rome, and that having been plunged
into a jar of boiling oil he came out fresher and more active than
when he went in."s" Jerome's A.D. 393 statement regarding John's
banishment by Domitian may be supportive of the argument for late
date advocacy.81 But, then again, it may not be as strongly supportive
as many think, due to its context. The context tends to confuse the
matter by giving evidence of Jerome's confounding of two traditions.
As shown above, the reference from Tertullian would strongly suggest
a Neronic date. Thus, at least Jerome's evidence cannot be
indicative of anything like a unanimous persuasion of the late date
in his era. Jerome serves as evidence of the early existence of two
competing traditions regarding the date of John's banishment, and,
hence, the date of Revelation.
Syriac Witnesses
The Syriac Histo~ of John, th Son of Zebedee makes reference to
John's banishment under Nero.82 It states: "After these things, when
80. Jerome, Agaimt Jovinianum 1:26.
81. As cited by late date advocates, e.g., Swete, Revelation, p. c.; Charles, Reveldian
1 :xcii~ Mounce, Revelation, p. 32; Moffatt, Revelation, p. 320; WaKleld, "Revelation," in
Philip Schaff, cd., A Religiow Etuyclopedia: Or Dirtinnay of Bibltial, Hir&ricul, Doctrinal, and
Practical Thlogy (New York: Funk and Wagnalls, 1883) 5:2035; Merrill C. Tenney,
"Revelation," in Merrill C. Tenney, cd., ZbnAvan Pkkwial Bibk Dictiommy (Grand Rapids:
Zondervan, 1967), p. 721.
82. See William Wright, A@@Jhzl Ads of thz A#Jo$tltM, 2 vols. (Amsterdam: Philo
1871 1968) 2:55-57; and Hort, Apoca~pse, p. xix.
106 BEFORE JERUSALEM FELL
the Gospel was increasing by the hands of the Apostles, Nero, the
unclean and impure and wicked king, heard all that had happened
at Ephesus. And he sent and took all that the procurator hadJ and
imprisoned him; and laid hold of S. John and drove him into exile;
and passed sentence on the city that it should be laid waste."83 This
ancient statement is clear and to the point.
Elsewhere in the Syriac tradition, we should note that "both of
the Syriac Versions of the Revelation give in the title the statement
that John was banished by Nero."w Though the earlier canon of the
true * (or Syriac Vulgate) version of the fifth century did not
contain Revelation at all,85 the sixth and seventh century editions of
the Syriac New Testament did. In them Th Apoca~pse of St. John
agrees with a Neronic banishment for John.*G One version is "beyond
doubt"8 7 that of Thomas of Harkel (A.D. 616). The other most
probably is the edition prepared in A.D. 508 by Polycarpus, the
chorepiscopus of Philoxenus, Bishop of Mabbug, hence its designation
as the Philoxenian version.w Their titles say.- "written in Patmos,
whither John was sent by Nero Caesar. "89
Andreas of Cappadocia
Andreas was bishop of Cappadocia (probably near the commencement
of the sixth century).W He is known either as Andrew of
Caesarea or Andreas of Cappadocian Caesarea. He wrote a commentary
on Revelation which is still extant.
l't is clear from reading him that he prefers a Dornitianic date for
83. Wright Apoc~phal Acts 2:55.
84. Arthur S. Peake, Tke Reuelatwn ofJohn (London: Joseph Johnson, 1919), pp. 76-77.
See also Swete, Rewlation, p. c; Hort, Apoca@e, p. xix.
85. Bruce M. Metzger, The Text of the Nere Testament, 2nd ed. (Oxford: Oxford
University Press, 1968), pp. 68-71.
86. John Gwynn, cd., 7% A@ca@se of St John in a SF"ac V2ra"on Hithzrto Unknown
(Amsterdam: APA-Philo, 1896 1981), p. 1.
87. Swete, Raelation, p. cxciv.
88. Metzger, Text, p. 70. See also Gwynn, p. iv. See all of chap. 6 for a detailed
analysis.
89. Stuart, Apoca~pse 1:267.
90. Though his dates are difficult to pinpoint, it seems agreeable to most scholars
that he flourished in either the latter part of the fifth century or the earlier part of the
sixth. See Stuart, Raelation 1 :267; Swete, Revelation, cxcix, Schaff, Ewydopedia 1 :83; and
W. Smith and Henry Wace, Didiommy of Christra.n Biography, Literature, Sects, and Doctrina
(Boston: Little, Brown, 1877-1888) 1: 154fl_.
Additional External Witnesses 107
Revelation. He frequently challenges, however, other interpreters of
his era who apply several of the prophecies of Revelation to the
Jewish War under Vespasian and Titus.gl At Revelation 6:12, for
instance, he writes: "There are not wanting those who apply this
passage to the siege and destruction of Jerusalem by Titus." On the
interpretation of Revelation 7:1 he comments: "These things are
referred by some to those sufferings which were inflicted by the
Remans upon the Jews." On Revelation 7:2 he observes: "Although
these things happened in part to Jewish Christians, who escaped the
evils inflicted on Jerusalem by the Remans, yet they more probably
refer to Anti-christ." From such statements it would appear evident
that there were several ("there are not wanting" and "some") noted
commentators who flourished in the sixth century (or before!) who
necessarily held to a pre-A.D. 70 date for Revelation.
Arethas
According to A. R. Fausset, "Arethas, in the sixth century,92
applies the sixth seal to the destruction of Jerusalem (70 A.D.),
adding that the Apocalypse was written before that event ."93 Like
Andreas, he wrote a commentary on Revelation. Desprez cites Arethas's
comments on several verses .94 On Revelation 6:12 Arethas
writes: "Some refer this to the siege of Jerusalem by Vespasian." On
Revelation 7:1 he notes: "Here, then, were manifestly shown to the
Evangelist what things were to befall the Jews in their war against
the Romans, in the way of avenging the sufferings inflicted upon
Christ." Of Revelation 7:4 we read: "When the Evangelist received
these oracles, the destruction in which the Jews were involved was
not yet inflicted by the Remans."
Stuart records some additional observations from Arethas's commentary
worthy of consideration.95 In his comments on Revelation
1:9, Arethas writes: "John was banished to the isle of Patmos under
91. See Stuart, Revelation 1:267; Desprez, Apoca~/xe, p. 7.
92. Some scholars, most notably Stuart (Apoca@e 1:268) and Fausset (Jamieson,
Fausset, Brown, Conmerztary) assign Arethas to the sixth century. Others assign him
much later to c. A.D. 914. For example Swete, Revelation, p. cxcix (on the strength of
Harnack's argument); and Kurt Aland, et. al., The Greek New Testament, 3rd ed. (London:
United Bible Societies, 1975), p. xxvii.
93. Fausset, in Jamieson, Fausset, Brown, CommentaU 2:548.
94. Desprez, Apocalypse, p. 7.
95. Stuart, Aporu~pse 1:268.
108 BEFORE JERUSALEM FELL
Domitian, Eusebius alleges in his Chronicon." Arethas does not
appear to be satisfied with what Eusebius "alleges." This is all the
more evident in his comments on Revelation 7:1 and 7:4 (see above);
there Arethas speaks his own mind. He then goes on to note that
Josephus records the fulfillment of the predictions in the seals. Stuart
saw these – and rightly, it would seem – to be compellingly suggestive
of a pre-A.D. 70 date for Revelation.
Tkophylact
A much later witness is Theophylact, Metropolitan of Bulgaria
and noted Byzantine exegete (d. 1107). He gives evidence of a dual
tradition on John's banishment. He puts Revelation "under Trajan,
but elsewhere gives a date which would bring it into the time of
Nero.'ygG In his Pref~e to Cornmentay on tb Gospel ofJohn, Theophylact
puts the banishment of John under Nero when he says John was
banished thirty-two years after the ascension of Christ97: "t% 17@u~
74 vrjap $Cbpmr% 61ad6v psra _cplaKowa660 Erq r~< rofi
~lo-roc &va/lxjy&o<." In his commentary on Matthew 20:22 he
mentions John's banishment under Trajan!98
Conclusion
The above survey shows that the Domitianic date cannot be
certairdy established from the external evidence. Indeed, when carefully
scrutinized, the evidence even tilts in the opposite direction.
Thus, Guthrie's statement does not appear to be well taken: "It
would be strange, if the book really was produced at the end of Nero's
reign, that so strong a tradition arose associating it with Domitian's.
"gg The Domitianic evidence is less than compelling.
Irenaeus's statement, the major evidence by far, is grammatically
ambiguous and easily susceptible to a most reasonable re-interpretation.
The re-interpretive approach would totally eliminate him as a
positive late date witness. The evidences from Clement of Alexandria
96. Peake, Revelation, p. 77. Cp. Swete, Rewlatirm, p. c; and Charles, Revelation 1 :xcii.
97. For the Greek, see Stuart, Apoca&pse 1:269.
98. Among ancient writers only Dorotheus, bishop of Tyre in the sixth century, agrees
with such a late date for John's banishment to Patmos; see his Synop$i$ d~ titu et mow
proplutumm. See Swete, Rewlation, p. q and Stuart, Apoca@se 1:269. It should be noted
that Dorotheus only says that the Gospel (not Revelation) was written at this time.
99. Guthrie, Itirodti"on, p. 960.
Additional External Witnesses 109
and Origen, the second and third most significant witnesses to the
Domitianic date, are more in the mind of the modern reader than in
the script of the ancient texts. The important references from both of
these two fathers not only lack the name "Domitian," but are more
easily understandable if dealing with Nero. In the case of Clement
particularly, it would appear that a Neronic date would be demanded,
and not simply suggested. That these two witnesses were
ever deemed notable examples of the late date witness is quite
remarkable. Andreas clearly supports a Domitianic banishment, but
in doing so he must debate a plurality of competing exegetes prior
to and during his own era who hold to a Neronic date. Victorious is
a sure witness, but alone in unambiguous testimony among the major
references.
There are some witnesses that may hint at a pre-A.D. 70 dating
for Revelation, such as The Shepherd of Hermas and Papias. Yet,
other sources are even more suggestive of a Neronic banishment: the
Muratorian Canon, Tertullian, and Epiphanies. Others seem to
imply hth. dates for John's banishment: Eusebius (cf Ecclesiastical
Histoy with Evangelical Demonstrations) and Jerome. These at least
suggest either an early competition between theories, or a double
banishment ofJohn, once under Nero and later under Domitian.
On the other hand, undeniably supportive of a Neronic date are
Arethas, the Syriac Histoy ofJohn, the Syriac versions of Revelation,
and Theophylact.
Obviously, then, there was no sure, uniform, and certain tradition
in the early centuries of the Church on this matter. All that is
certain is that John was banished to Patmos and there wrote Revelation.
In the matter of details, there is confusion and contradiction
that betrays the possibility of various hypotheses floating about,
rather than firm convictions. This is possibly why neither Clement
of Alexandria nor Origen ventured to explicitly name the emperor
of the banishment. They surely knew of Irenaeus's statements, yet
they neglected to refer to them on this matter. All things considered,
however, even the external evidence leans toward a Neronic date.
PART 199
THE INTERNAL
EVIDENCE
7
THE ROLE OF
INTERNAL EVIDENCE
We come now, at last, to the presentation of the major arguments
for the early date of Revelation. The evidences analyzed herein
should be considered the fundamental arguments of early date advocacy.
Following the presentation of the positive internal evidence,
will be given an analysis of and rebuttal to the four leading objections
to the early date from the internal evidence.
The Sig-niilca.nce of Internal Evidence
As observed previously, it has often been the case that the external
witness to Revelation's date has been a major — perhaps the
major — stumbling block to the acceptance of an early date. Hence,
our lengthy survey and analysis of the external evidence. Working
from biblical presuppositions as to the nature and integrity of Scripture,
the convictions of orthodox, conservative Christianity must
recognize that the essential and determinative evidence ought to be
drawn from the internal tes~imony of the scriptural record itself, when
it is available. In this regard, the argument put forward by Ned B.
Stonehouse for a change of terminology in the field of Biblical Introduction
is very much to the point before us (even though his original
considerations were with questions related to the Synoptic Problem).
Stonehouse calls for an abandonment of the internal/external nomenclature
in the field in favor of a self-witness/tradition distinction:
In using the terms "tradition" and "self-witness," it may be well to
point out, I am deliberately abandoning the older terminology employed
in my undergraduate course of studies, namely, "external and
internal evidence." Since I have exactly the same contents in view in
my distinctions as my teachers had in theirs, the difference being
pointed up hardly involves a serious dispute with them. There is
113
114 BEFORE JERUSALEM FELL
nevertheless, I believe, a distinct advantage in rejecting the older
terminology in favor ofthat which is used here because in this fashion
greater justice can bedoneto the profound difference between externalandinterml
evidence, especially as this difference is related to the
contents of Scripture. It is difficult indeed to exaggerate the value of
the knowledge gained from tradition; without it we should be in a
position of incomparably deeper ignorance than we now are. Nevertheless,
the testimony of tradition cannot rise above the level of
tradition whereas the self-witness of the Gospels and other writings
in Scripture, in the very nature of the case, is of a qualitatively
different kind. In coming to ultimate judgments concerning a document
nothing can be alleged against that which it discloses itself as
being by its very contents. And the qualitative nature of this difference
is underscored when, as in the case of the Gospels, we are dealing
with the witness of Scripture itself. 1
Stonehouse's point is well-taken, and should be especially persuasive
among those of orthodox, conservative convictions. Although the
standard terminology has been retained in the present study, it has
been so merely for the sake of convenience. The implications should
be understood to be those expressed by Stonehouse.
Historical Use of Revelation's
Internal Evidence
Up until the first couple of decades in this century it could be
stated rather confidently that "no critic of any note has ever claimed
that the later date for Revelation is required by any internal evidence."
2 Today this statement is no longer valid. Indeed, at least one
late date advocate of note, Leon Morris, in an unusual procedure
considers m~ internal indications for the date in his commentary
(although he does mention evidence from tradition in one footnote).3
Those of the early date school have set forth a broad array of
internal evidences in defense of their position — some more and some
1. Ned B. Stonehouse, origim #t/u $r@tit Gospek (London: Tyndale, 1963), pp. 1,
Q4.
2. Milton S. Terry, Bibltial Hennewutics (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, rep. 1974), p.
240.
3. Leon Morris, Tb Rtwelation of St. John (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1969), pp.
34-40. It should be realized that Morris's commentary does not claim to be a "critical
commentary"; nevertheless, he is a competent New Testament critic of the highest
calibre and does deal with certain of the critical aspects of Revelation.
The Role of Intemtal Euiderwe 115
less compelling. Some of the evidences propounded by early date
advocates of higher critical persuasions are even based on antisupernaturalistic
presuppositions.4 Early date evidences considered
to be the most significant set forth by several nineteenth century
scholars will be briefly mentioned for two reasons. We do this, first,
in order to provide some historical background to the debate, and,
second, as a means of illustrating the variety of avenues that have
been explored in this matter.
Macdonald settles upon six major lines of evidence.5 His arguments
are as follows: (1) The peculiar idiom of Revelation indicates
a younger John, before his mastery of the Greek language, a mastery
evidenced in his more polished Gospel from a later period. (2) The
existence of only seven churches in Asia Minor (Rev. 1) indicates a
date before the greater expansion of Christianity into that region. (3)
The activity of Judaizing heretics in the Church (Rev. 2, 3) should
be less conspicuous after a broader circulation of Paul's anti-
Judaizing letters. (4) The prominence of the Jewish persecution of
Christianity (Rev. 6, 11) indicates the relative safety and confidence
of the Jews in their land. (5) The existence and integrity ofJerusalem
and the Temple (Rev. 11) suggest the early date. (6) The reign of the
sixth emperor (Rev. 17) must indicate a date in the A.D. 60s.
Of these arguments, Milton S. Terry endorses numbers 1, 2, 4,
and 5; he also adds a couple of additional considerations: (7) There
is a lack of internal evidence in Revelation for a late date. (8) The
nearness of the events had no fulfillment beyond the dramatic events
of A.D. 70.6 F. W. Farrar allows for Macdonald's arguments 5 and
6, and adds another: (9) It is easy to apply Revelation's prophecies
to the Jewish War.' Schaff allows for three of the above arguments:
Macdonald's numbers 5 and 6, and Farrar's additional argument
regarding the nature of the events of the Jewish War. Schaff also
expands on Macdonald's argument 4 by reference to the existence of
4. E.g., John A, T. Robinson, Redating the New Takrment (Philadelphia Westminster,
1976), passim; and Charles Cutler Torrey, Ttu Apoca@pse of John (New Haven: Yale:
1958), passim.
5. James M. Macdonald, 2% L$e and Writings ~ St. John (London: Hodder &
Stoughton, 1877), pp. 152-167.
6. Terry, HermerwstiCS, pp. 24QK.
7. Frederick W. Farrar, Tb Ear@ Day of Chn.stiani~ (New York: Cassell, 1884), pp.
412ff.
116 BEFORE JERUSALEM FELL
the Twelve Tribes, assumed intact in Revelation 7:4-8.8
As we seek to establish an early date for Revelation in this the
major portion of our study, honesty compels us to admit at the outset
that there are many good scholars of 60th schools of dating who agree
with the assertion of late date advocate Martin Kiddie: "There is no
direct evidence in REVELATION itself to indicate any precise date
for its composition."g Guthrie admits the significance of internal
evidence in matters of Introduction, but, in the case before us, doubts
if Revelation offers any. 10 Even early date advocate F. J. A. Hort is
not really persuaded that there are direct internal evidences leading
in this direction. Regarding those offered – such as those mentioned
above – he doubts whether we should "lay much stress upon them."
He deems the positive internal evidences as merely "interesting." 11
The critical determination of noted early date advocates of Hort's
line of thinking is founded upon an evaluation that gives more weight
to discreet literary and psychological indicators than to what many
early date advocates deem to be direct statements of chronological
significance or objective historical allusions. Though these are, nevertheless,
internal indicators (they have to do with self-witness, rather
than with tradition), they tend to be more subjective or atmospheric
than objective and concrete. For instance, Hort lists two "grounds for
asserting the Neronian date" that seemed to him to be "decisive":
(1) The whole language about Rome and the empire, Babylon and
the Beast, fits the last days of Nero and the time immediately following,
and does not fit the short local reign of terror under Domitian.
Nero affected the imagination of the world as Domitian, as far as we
know, never did. . . .
(2) The book breathes the atmosphere of a time of wild commotion.
. . . Under Vespasian, however, the old stability seemed to
return: it lasted on practically for above a century more. Nothing at
all corresponding to the tumultuous days after Nero is known in
Domitian's reign, or the time which followed it. . . . It is only in the
8. Philip Schaff, Hirto~ of t~ Christian ChuTch, 8 vols. (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans,
1910 1950) l:835tI
9. Martin Kiddie, T/M Rswlatwn of St. John (New York: Harper and Bros., 1940), p.
xxxvi. That he holds to a late date theory can be seen on p. xl of his work.
10. Donald Guthrie, New Testament Introduction, 3rd ml. (Downers Grove, IL: Inter-
Varsity Press, 1970), p. 957. Emphasis mine.
11. F. J. A. Hort, The A@aly@ of St. John: Z-ZZZ (London: Macmillan, 1908), p. xxviii.
Tb Role of Internal Euidence 117
anarchy of the earlier time that we can recognise a state of things that
will account for the tone of the Apocalypse. 12
These observations are quite suggestive and will be dealt with
later. Yet despite Hort's hesitancy at acknowledging positive, objective
historical indicators in Revelation, his use of the literary and
subjective arguments is helpful to formulating the early date position.
Even early date advocates who recognize more objective historical
indicators within Revelation often make use of the subjective data as
well. For instance, Stuart considers the psychological implications of
a late date composition when he notes that "the fiery phantasy or
lively imagination everywhere exhibited in the Apocalypse, can with
more probability be predicted ofJohn at some sixty years of age, than
at eighty-five or ninety." 13 Robinson follows suit when he surmises
that "it is difficult to credit that a work so vigorous as the Apocalypse
could really be the product of a nonagenarian, as John the son of
Zebedee must by then have been, even if he were as much as ten
years younger than Jesus."14
Beyond such psychological implications, there are also the literary
implications. Westcott states the older literary argument ably
when he writes:
The irregularities of style in the Apocalypse appear to be due not so
much to ignorance of the language as to a free treatment of it, by one
who used it as a foreign dialect. Nor is it difficult to see that in any
case intercourse with a Greek-speaking people would in a short time
naturally reduce the style of the author of the Apocalypse to that of
the author of the Gospel. It is, however, very difficult to suppose that
the language of the writer of the Gospel could pass at a later time in
a Greek-speaking country into the language of the Apocalypse. . . .
Of the two books the Apocalypse is the earlier. It is less developed
both in thought and style. The material imagery in which it is
composed includes the idea of progress in interpretation. . . .
The Apocalypse is after the close of St. Paul's work. It shows in its
mode of dealing with Old Testament figures a close connexion with
the Epistle to the Hebrews (2 Peter, Jude). And on the other hand it
12. Ibid., pp. xxvi, xxvii.
13. Moses Stuart, Comrmmtary on tb Apoca~@e, 2 vols. (Andover: Allen, Merrill, and
Wardwell, 1845) 1:280.
14. Robinson, Redating, p. 222.
118 BEFORE JERUSALEM FELL
is before the destruction ofJerusalem.15
The present writer deems certain of the arguments suggested
above to be doubtful. For instance, many early date advocates,
especially of the 1800s and very early 1900s (among them we could
list Macdonald, Terry, and Scha~ 'G to name but a few), used the
argument from idiom. The validity of these observations, however,
is questionable. The "crudeness" of Revelation's Greek does not
necessarily suggest a primitive grasp of the language. Its unusual
grammar and syntax are perhaps more determined by the purpose
at hand (prophetic panorama), the means of its reception (by vision
through angelic mediator, e.g., Rev. 1:1 ), and the subject matter
(covenantal wrath). Austin Farrer observes that "the suggestion that
St. John wrote like this because he knew no better may be dismissed
out of hand. He was writing a Christian Ezekiel or Zechariah in the
phrase of the 01d."7 Farrer suggests that John adopted "an artificial
language, Septuagintic Greek, in which to handle" the imagery. 18
John, as it were, wrote in much the same way as a modern rapturous
saint might write using the language of the King James Version.
Septuagintic Greek permeated John's mind and heart while he was
overwhelmed (cf. Rev. 1:17; 5:4; 17:6; 19: 10) by the drama unfolding
before him (he "saw," 1:2; 5:1,6; 6:lff.; 7:l~; 8:2K; 9:1K; 10:1; etc.)
and around him (he experienced, Rev. 1:12, 17; 4:1, 2; 10:4, 9, 10;
11:1, 2; 13:1; 19:10; etc.).
In addition, the argument from the number of churches may be
discounted as based upon insufficient evidence. The number could
well be a limitation based on symbolic requirements. And if there
were many churches, it would have been cumbersome to list them
all in the preface; the churches listed could be representative churches.
Certain of the arguments, however, are not only stronger, but
virtually certain, e.g. the contemporary reign of the sixth kingg and
15. Brooke Foss Westcott, Thz Gospel Awordirzg to St. John (Grand Rapids: Baker,
1908 1980), pp. clxxiv-clxxv.
16. Macdonald, L~e of St. John, pp. 152-15~ Terry, Hermewutics, pp. 240-241; Schaff,
Hz.stoy 1:428-429. At one time this was deemed to be the major argument by some, e.g.,
Westcott, Gospel AccoTding to John.
17. Austin Farrer, A Rebirth of Zmages (Bostom Beacon, 1949), p. 24.
18. Ibid.
19. Feuillet observes of the relative strength of the internal evidence from Revelation
17 as compared to the external evidence from Irenaeus: "The chief objection which could
The Role of Internal Evio%nce 119
the integrity of the Temple and Jerusalem. These arguments, along
with several others, will serve as the focus of the present study as the
primary chronological allusions.
Thus, despite Kiddie, Guthrie and others of the late date school,
and those such as Hort of the early date school, there do seem to be
both inherently suggestive and positively compelling historical timeframe
indicators in Revelation. It is remarkable that whereas Kiddie,
for instance, may absolutely deny the presence of internal indications,
others — no less scholarly – may just as strongly assert the contrary.
The internal historical evidences compel the noted F. W. Farrar to
be "all but certain" as to the date of the book.20 Stuart feels the same
certainty of conviction when he writes: "If there be anything certain
in the principles of hermeneutics, it is certain that they decide in
favour of a reference to Judea and its capital in Rev. vi – xi. The
very fact, moreover, that the destruction of Jerusalem (chap. xi) is
depicted in such outlines and mere sketches, shows that it was then
jiture, when the book was written. It is out of all question, except by
mere violence, to give a different interpretation to this part of the
Apocalypse."21
Macdonald argues that "it will be found that no book of the New
Testament more abounds in passages which clearly have respect to
the time when it was written. ~>zz Historian Edmundson writes 'hat
"the Apocalypse is full of references to historical events of which the
author had quite recently been himself an eyewitness at Rome, or
which were fresh in the memories of the Roman Christians with
whom he had been associating."23 He chooses a pre-A.D. 70 date and
states dogmatically that "the witness of the contents of the book itsel~
as will be shown, amply justifies such an assertion. "24 Torrey vigorbe
raised against the date indicated by Irenaeus, is the Apocalypse passage (17:9-1 1),
which refers to the 7 heads of the one Beast. . . ." He sees the seventh as being either
Otho or Vespasian (Andre Feuillet, T/w Apoca@e, trans. Thomas E. Crane Staten
Island: Alba House, 1965, p. 90).
20. Farrar, Ear~ Dg.vs, p. 413.
21. Stuart, Apoca@e 1:276.
22. Macdonald, Lfe ofJohrz, p. 152.
23. George Edmundson, The Church in Rome in the First Cmtu~ (London: Longman's
Green, 1913), p. 164. He goes on to observe that "there is a certain amount of external
evidence, which has had much more weight than it deserves, apparently supporting a
late date" (i.e., Irenaeus).
24. Ibid.
120 BEFORE JERUSALEM FELL
ously asserts not only the clear existence, but also the weightiness, of
the internal evidence for determining Revelation's date: "The positive
indications of an early date are numerous, definite, and all pointing
to the same time. "25 In Revelation are "plain and very definite
historical allusions."26
Conclusion
We will show that upon a careful examination of the issues, it is
diilicult to disagree with the convictions that are shared by Farrar,
Stuart, Edmundson, Torrey, and others on this matter. The remainder
of this study will be given to an in-depth consideration of the
internal evidences, seeking to establish those supportive of an early
date (Part III), and critically analyzing and disposing of those major
arguments from the internal evidence that are alleged to militate
against the early date (Part IV).
25. Torrey, Apoca@e, p. 79.
26. Ibid., p. 58.
8
THE THEME OF REVELATION
Although the differing interpretations of Revelation are extremely
numerous and quite varied, there is a relatively broad consensus
among commentators regarding at least one major interpretive issue.
That issue is the matter of the basic tkme of Revelation. Certainly
an author's theme, if stated, is of prime hermeneutical importance for
the proper understanding of his intent. And since we now turn our
attention to the internal evidence, the determination of the theme of
Revelation holds potential value for our inquiry. Yet, although the
fwt of Revelation's theme is widely agreed upon,l the nature of the
fulfillment of the fact is not so broadly agreed upon. Nevertheless,
we will show that the recognition of this theme and its proper
explication are of much assistance to our inquiry.
Determination of the Theme
The theme of Revelation is found in its introduction at Revelation
1:7: "Behold, He is coming with the clouds, and every eye will see
Him, even those who pierced Him; and all the tribes of the earth will
mourn over Him. Even so. Amen. " Stuart writes of this verse: "Here
then, on the very front of the book, is exhibited a title-page, as it were
indicative of a conspicuous part of the contents of the work."2
A number of scholars agree with Stuart's assessment. Duster-
1. The theme's being contained in verse 7 is wide~, though not universally, agreed
upon. Hendriksen begins his comments on verse 7: "This is not the central theme of the
book" (William Hendriksen, More Z7zan Congwrors Grand Rapids: Baker, 1967, p. 68).
He recognizes, though, that he is in disagreement with "many excellent commentaries"
(p. 263, endnote 9). His disagreement seems, however, to have more to do with the nature
of the interpretation of Revelation 1:7 than with the actual fact (see pp. 12-14, 68).
2. Moses Stuart, CommentaU on the Apoc+pse, 2 vols. (Andover Allen, Merrill, and
Wardwell, 1845) 1:273.
121
122 BEFORE JERUSALEM FELL
dieck, for instance, sees verse 7 as the "principal theme"3 that expresses''
the fundamental idea . . .ofthewhole book.''4 Weiss views
it as "a motto for the whole book."5 Justin A. Smith comments that
"if any one theme can be named as the absorbing and comprehensive
one in this book, it must be given to us in the words (1:7), 'Behold,
he cometh with clouds.' "G Of Revelation 1:7, 8, Terry observes that
"these two verses contain, first, a solemn declaration of the great
theme of the book."7 Russell argues that this verse is "the keynote of
the Apocalypse" that "is the thesis or text of the whole."8 T. D.
Bernard in his Bampton Lectures at Otiord University calls this
verse "the first voice, and the keynote of the whole."g Donald W.
Richardson states of this verse: "The Coming of the Lord is the
dominant note of the book."lo Chilton concurs; "Verse 7 announces
the theme of the book." 1
That these observations as to Revelation's theme are correct
should be evident in the emphasis placed on His coming that is a
constant refi-ain in the personal letters to the Seven Churches (Rev.
2:5, 16, 25; 3:3, 11, 20) and elsewhere (Rev. 16:15; 22:7, 12, 20). As
Dusterdieck observes: "He (Christ) cometh; this is the theme of the
Apoc., which is expressed here not in indefinite generality, but directly
afterwards its chief points, as they are further unfolded in the
book, are stated."'2 The ~ematic idea is not only introduced early
in the work (Rev. 1:7); and it not only closes it (Rev. 22:20); but it
is also presented dramatically with an attention-demanding "Behold!"
at its initial appearance. Clearly something of tremendous
3. Friedrich Diisterdieck, Critiad and Exegetical Handbook toh Revelation of John, 3rd
cd., trans. Henry E. Jacobs (New York: Funk and Wagnalls, 1886), p. 28.
4. Ibid.
5. Bernhard Weiss, A Manual of Introdw%on to th New Testament, trans. A. J. K.
Davidson, vol. 2 (New York: Funk and Wagnalls, 1889), p. 71.
6. Justin A. Smith, CommentaT on th Revelation. An American Commentary on the
New Testament (Valley Forge: Judson, 1884 rep. n.d.), p. 18.
7. Milton S. Terry, Biblical Apocdyptics (New York Eaton and Mains, 1898), p. 280.
8. J. Stuart Russell, %Parowia: A Stub of th Ntw Testament Doctrine of Our Lord%
.%cond Corning, 2nd ed. (Grand Rapids: Baker, 1887 1983), p. 368.
9. Thomas Dehany Bernard, Progrem of Doctrim in th Ntw T~tamtnt (Grand Rapids:
Eerdmans, 1864 1949), p. 213.
10. Donald W. Richardson, l% Rsuelation of Jesus Chtit (Richmond, VA: John Knox,
1964), p. 28.
11. David Chilton, 7% Days of Vmgeanre: An Exposition of h Book ~ Revelation (Ft.
Worth, TX: Dominion Press, 1987), p. 64.
12. Diisterdkck, Reoelatwn, p. 105.
Tb Theme of Revelation 123
import is being introduced. But what is expected? And how is it
anticipated? Further, how does it assist in our inquiry?
Explication of the Theme
The nature of the event has to do with a "Cloud-Coming" of
Christ. It is necessary here to understand the Old Testament backdrop
for a proper comprehension of the matter. The Old Testament
frequently uses clouds as indicators of divine judgment. God is said
to be surrounded with thick, foreboding clouds as emblems of His
unapproachable holiness and righteousness (Gen. 15:17; Ex. 13:21-
22; 14:19-20; 19:9, 16-19; Deut. 4:11; Job 22:14; Psa. 18:8ff.; 97:2;
104:3; Isa. 19: 1; Eze. 32:7-8). He is poetically portrayed as coming
in clouds in historical judgments upon men (Psa. 18:7-15; 104:3; Isa.
19:1; Joel 2:1, 2; Nab. l:2ff.; Zeph. 1:14, 15). Thus, the New Tests+
ment speaks of Christ's coming in clouds of judgment in history at
Matthew 24:30 and 26:64, not to mention His Second Coming at the
end of world history (Acts 1:11; 1 Thess. 4: 13ff. ). His Cloud-Coming
is a Judgment-Coming that brings mourning. But upon whom? And
when? And how? Fortunately — and as expected in such a context
with an attention arresting "behold" – time cues exist within the
theme text, and can be found in the other New Testament allusions
to this same passage. And along with these time cues we can surmise
the objects of His wrath. The passage clearly states that He will
come and cause mourning among "those who pierced Him" and
upon "all the tribes of the earth. " Let us consider each of these
separately and then merge them together to form a complete picture.
"Those Who Pierced Him"
Who are "those who pierced Him"? Although it is true that the
Romans were responsible for physically nailing Him to the cross13
(John 18:30-3 1), the onus of the divine curse indisputably falls squarely
upon those who instigated and demanded it: the Jews. "If the Remans
took any part in doing this, it was a merely ministerial and
subordinate part. The Jews were the instigators and the proper
authors of the deed." 14 The biblical record is quite clear: the Jews are
13. The very fact that He was sentenced to die by crucifixion (a Roman punishment)
and not stoning (a Jewish punishment) is by itself indicative of the physical involvement
of the Roman judicial apparatus.
14. Stuart, Apoca~pse 1:272-273.
124 BEFORE JERUSALEM FELL
the ones who sought His death (John 11:53; Matt. 26:4 27:1), who
paid to have Him captured (Matt. 26:14-15, 47; 27:3-9), who brought
fialse witnesses against Him (Matt. 27:59-62), who initially convicted
Him (Matt. 27:65-66), who turned Him over to Roman authorities
(Matt. 27:2, 11, 12; Acts 3:13), and who even arrogantly (and
disastrously!) called down His blood upon their own heads (Matt.
27:24-25). John even tells us in his Gospel that the Roman Procurator,
Pontius Pilate, sought to free Jesus, finding no fault in Him (John
18:38; 19: 12; cp. Acts 3:13). But the Jews demanded that the robber
Barabbas be released instead of Christ (John 18:39, 40), and that
Christ be immediately crucified (John 19:6, 15). They even subtly
threatened Pilate's tenuous Roman procuratorship by aflirming "we
have no king but Caesar" (John 19:14-15), suggesting that Pilate was
allowing Christ to supplant Caesar. And Jesus Himsel~ during the
course of these events, specifically pointed out to Pilate: "he who
delivered Me up to you has the greater sin" (John 19:11 ).
In Acts 2:22-23, 36, Peter laid the blame largely on Israel: "Men
of Israel, listen to these words: Jesus the Nazarene, a man attested
to you by God with miracles and wonders and signs which God
performed through Him in your midst, just as you yourselves
know – this Man, delivered up by the predetermined plan and foreknowledge
of God, you nailed to a cross by the hands of godless men
and put Him to death. . . . Therefore let all the house of Israel know
for certain that God has made Him both Lord and Christ – this
Jesus whom you crucified." He does the same in a sermon in Acts
3:13-15a: "The God of Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob, the God of our
fathers, has glorified His servant Jesus, the one whom yu delivered
up, and disowned in the presence of Pilate, when he had decided to
release Him. But you disowned the Holy and Righteous One, and
asked for a murderer to be granted to you, but put to death the Prince
of life. " He repeats this to the Jews in Acts 5:30 where he proclaims:
"The God of our fathers raised up Jesus, whomyu had put to death
by hanging Him on a cross."
Stephen, in Acts 7:52, declares the same fact as does Pete~
"Which one of the prophets did your fathers not persecute? And they
killed those who had previously announced the coming of the Righteous
One, whose betrayers and murderers y have now become. "
Paul concurs in 1 Thessalonians 2:14-15: "For you, brethren, became
imitators of the churches of God in Christ Jesus that are in Judea, for
The Theme ofl?evelation 125
you also endured the same sufferings at the hands of your own
countrymen, even as they did from the Jews, who both killed trk Lord
Jesus and the prophets, and drove us out."
This consistent and constant witness against the Jews in the
canon of the New Testament continues into post-apostolic Church
history. Let us list a few of the sources where the idea is pressed by
the early Church fathers. We will quote the fathers occasionally to
illustrate the nature of the comments. The references are all taken
from Roberts and Donaldson's The Ante-Niane Fathers; parenthetical
page numbers are to this work. 15
Ignatius (c. A.D. 50-115) quite frequently drives home the point
of Jewish culpability regarding Christ's death. In chapter 11 of his
Epistle to the Magne$ians (ANF 1:64) he speaks of the "Christ-killing
Jews." In chapter 11 of the Epistle to the Tralliam (ANF 1:71), he
speaks of the Jews as "those fighters against God, those murderers
of the Lord." In the Epistle to the Smyrruzeans, chapter 2 (ANF 1:87),
he says: "The Word raised up again His own temple on the third
day, when it had been destroyed by the Jews fighting against Christ."
In chapter 2 of the spurious (but ancient) Epistle to Hero (ANF 1: 113),
the writer casts reproach upon those who deny Christ's deity: "If any
one says that the Lord is a mere man, he is a Jew, a murderer of
Christ." In the spurious (but ancient) Epistle to th Philippians, chapter
14 (ANF 1:119), we read: "If any one celebrates the passover along
with the Jews, or receives the emblems of their feast, he is a partaker
with those that killed the Lord and His apostles. "
Justin Martyr (c. A.D. 100-165) plays the same theme of Jewish
liability in his First Apology "Jesus Christ stretched forth His hands,
being crucified by the Jews" (ch. 35, ANF 1:174). "And that all these
things happened to Christ at the hands of the Jews, you can ascertain"
(ch. 38, ANF 1:175). In his Dialogue with T@ho, chapter 72
(ANF 1:235), he writes: "the Jews deliberated about the Christ
Himsel~ to crucifi and put Him to death."
Irenaeus (c. 130-202) concurs in his Agaimt Heresies, when he
says of the Jews: "God sent in Jesus, whom they crucified and God
raised up" (3: 12:2, ANF 1:430), and "To the Jews, indeed, they
proclaimed that the Jesus who was crucified by them was the Son of
15. Alexander Roberts and James Donaldson, eds., T/w AnteNicene Fathers ANF, ICI
vols. (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, late 19th c. 1975).
126 BEFORE JERUSALEM FELL
God (3:12:13, ANF 1:435).
Other Church fathers return to this theme. We list them along
with the references from The Ante-Niceru Fatherx
Melito of Sardis (d. A.D. 190): (ANF 8:757il, 760).
Tertullian (A.D. 160-220):
Apolo~, chapters 21 (AAW 3:34fE) and 26 (ANF 3:40).
On IdolatT, chapter 7 (ANF 3:64).
An Answer to the Jews, chapters 9 (ANF 3: 160) and 13 (ANF 3: 171).
Agaimt Martin, 3:6 (ANF 3:325K), 3:23 (ANF 3:341), 5:15 (ANF
3:462).
Hippolytus (c. A.D. 170-236):
Treatise on Christ and Anti-christ, chapters 30 (ANF 5:210) and 57
(ANF5:216).
Expositoy Treatise Agairut the Jms, chapters 1, 2 (ANF 5:219), and
7 (ANF 5:220).
Against Noetu+ chapter 18 (ANF 5:230).
Discourse on the End of the World (spurious; date unknown), chapters
1 (ANF 5:242) and 40 (ANF 5:252).
Cyprian (c. A.D. 195-258): Treatises, 9:7 (ANF 5:486); 10:5 (ANF
5:492); Introduction to Treatise 12 (ANF 5:507); 12:2:14 (ANF
5:521); 12:2:20 (ANF 5:524).
Lactantius (c. 240-320):
Diuiw Institutes, 4:18 (ANF 7: 121).
Epitome of the Diviw Institutes, chapter 46 (ANF 7:241).
On the Mannzr in Which thz Persecutors Died, chapter 2 (ANF 7:301).
Other evidences from early Church tradition include references
in the following works:
Tb Constitutions of the Ho~ Apostles, 5:3:18 (ANF 7:447).
Acts and Mart@-dom of St. Matthtw the Apostle (ANF 8:530).
Acts ofthz Ho~ Apostle Thdaizetu (ANF 8:559).
Acts of thz Ho~ Apostle and Evangelist John the Thologian (ANF 8:560K).
Rmelation of Paul (ANF 8:581).
Agbar thz King and Addaeus the Apostle (ANF 8:656).
Trk Tecwhing ~Addw the Apostle (ANF 8:659,662, 664).
T4e Teaching $t?w Apostles (ANF 8:670).
The Teaching ofSimon Cephm (ANF 8:675).
Moses of Chorine, chapter 33 (ANF 8:705tI.).
A htter of Mara (ANF 8:737).
Tb Th of Revelation 127
Clearly, the Judgment-Coming of Christ upon "those who pierced
Him," was to be upon the Jews, according to the repeated and
uniform witness both of the New Testament and of early Church
history. As Chilton observes: "Verse 7 i.e., of Revelation 1 announces
the theme of the book, which is not the Second Coming of
Christ, but rather the Coming of Christ in judgment upon Israel, in
order to establish the Church as the new Kingdom." 16 Clarke argues
for an early date for Revelation based on Revelation 1:7: "By this the
~~tih People are most evidently intended, and therefore the whole
verse may be understood as predicting the destruction of the Jews;
and is a presumptive proof that the Apocalypse was written before the
final overthrow of tlie Jewish state. 17
'<The Ttibes of the Earth"
This view is reinforced in the Revelation 1:7 passage when it
speaks of the mourning of "the tribes of the earth. " The Greek word
for "tribe" is ~uJ~, which in Scripture most. frequently refers to the
Jewish tribes. The Theological DictionaU of the New Testament notes that
the Septuagint "with few exceptions . . . has cpwbj, so that this
becomes a freed term for the tribal system of Israel." 18 The international
Standard Bible En~clopedia agrees, noting that with fkw exceptions
~uJrj "refers exclusively to the tribes of Israel." 19 The reference
to the "tribe of Judah" in Revelation 5:5 definitely carries that
connotation. The term obviously has that import in Revelation 7:4ff.,
where it is used of each of the specifically named Twelve Tribes. The
same must be true in Revelation 21:12, where John refers to "the
twelve tribes of the children of Israel. " Of course, where the term is
found in connection with "eue~ kindred, tribe, tongue, and nation"
16. Chilton, Days of Vmgeance, p. 64.
17. Adam Clarke, Clark/s Cornrnentag+ 6 VOIS. (Nashville: Abingdon c. 1823 rep.
n.d.) 6:971.
18. Christian Maurer, "qmhj," Gerhard Klttle and Gerhard Friedrich, eds., Thdogi-
CU1 Dictionmy of tb New Testament, trans. Geoffrey W. Bromiley (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans,
1974) 9:246.
19. Burton Scott Easton, "Tribe," in Interruztiomzl Standard Bible Emyclopedia (Grand
Rapidx Eerdmans, 1929) 43010. It should be noted, in addition, that both the Arndt-
Gingrich and the Thayer Greek lexieons list "tribe", as in Israel, as their first lexieal
entries. W. F. Amdt and F. W. G@-ich, A Greek-English L.aiam of the New Estameat
(Chicago University of Chicago Press, 1957), p. 87@ Joseph Henry Thayer, A Greek-
English L+wicon of the New Testanwnt (New York: Ameriean, 1889), p. 660.
128 BEFORE JERUSALEM FELL
in Revelation, such would not be the exclusive reference (c~ Rev.
5:9; 7:9; 11:9; 13:7; 14:6).
"7% Land"
In addition, the Greek word for "earth" in Revelation 1:7 is y~,
which most usually means either: (1) "earth, globe" or (2) "land."rn
Thus, upon purely lexical considerations, the term can be understood
as designating the Promised Land. As a matter of fact, literal translations
of the Scripture lean in this direction. Robert Young's Literal
Translation of tb Ho@ Bible translates it: "Lo, he cloth come with the
clouds, and see him shall every eye, even those who did pierce him,
and wail because of him shall all the tribes of the land. Yes! Amen!"21
Marshall's TLu Interlirwar Greek-English Nm Testament concurs: "Behold
he comes with the clouds, and will see him every eye and those
who him pierced, and will wail over him all the tribes of the land.
Yes, amen."22
Desprez's comments on this matter are most helpful:
The words rj yij, are not infrequently used in the Apocalypse in
connection with other clauses which qualifi their meaning, making it
evident that no particular land is pointed out, but earth generally.
. . . But the words in question are sometimes found qualified
by governing considerations which define and determine their meaning,
and this k always the case, when they are found in connection with
the governing clauses "they that dwell," ol KCZ~OIKO~VT&~. Then they
have, and can have, only one meaning; then they refer only to one
land and to one people, and this land and this people must be the
land and the people ofJudea.23
The significance of this translation of rj y~ can be discerned from
spiritual-cultural situations, such as noted by Edersheim: "For, to the
Rabbis the precise limits of Palestine were chiefly interesting so far
as they tiected the religious obligations or privileges of a district.
20. See Arndt and Gingrich, p. 156 Thayer, pp. 114-115. G. Abbott-Smith, A Manual
Greek La&on oft/u New Testament (Edinburgh: T. &T. Clark, 1937), p. 91.
21. Robert Young, % New Testament m Likral Translation of tb Ho~ Bible (Grand
Rapids: Baker, 1898 rep. n.d.), p. 167.
22. Alfred Marshall, The Intdinear Greek-English New Testarnast, 2nd ed. (Grand Rapids:
Zondervan, 1959), p. 956.
23. P. S. Desprez, T/u Apocalypse Fu@lled, 2nd ed. (London: Longman, Brown, Green,
Longmans, 1855), pp. 12-13.
Tb Thm of Rmelatwn 129
And in this respect the fact that a city was in heathen possession
exercised a decisive influence. Thus the environs of Ascalon, the wall
of Caesarea, and that of Acco, were reckoned within the boundaries
of Palestine, though the cities themselves were not. Indeed, viewing
the question from this point, Palestine was to the Rabbis simply 'the
land,' all other countries being summed up under the designation of
'outside the land.' "24
That such is the referent in Revelation 1:7 seems to be additionally
indicated by the fact that the verse is a blending of Daniel 7:13
and Zechariah 12:10. The Zechariah 12:10 passage indisputably
refers to the land of Israel: "And I will pour out on the house of David
and on the inhabitants of Jerusalem, the Spirit of grace and of
supplication, so that they will look on Me whom they have pierced;
and they will mourn for Him, as one mourns for an only son, and
they will weep bitterly over Him, like the bitter weeping over a
first-born. In that day there will be great mourning in Jerusalem, like
the mourning of Hadadnmmon in the plain of Megiddo. And the
land will mourn, every family by itself."
Furthermore, in Jesus' teaching there is a recurring emphasis
upon the culpability of the generation of Jews then living. ln Matthew
23 He calls down a seven-fold woe upon the scribes and
Pharisees, those who "sit in the chair of Moses" (Matt. 23:2). ln this
woeful passage He distinctly and clearly warns (Matt. 23:32-38):
Fill up then the measure of the guilt of your fathers. You serpents, you
brood of vipers, how shall you escape the sentence of *? Therefore,
behold, I am sending you prophets and wise men and scribes; some
of them you will kill and cruci~, and some of them you will scourge
in your synagogues, and persecute from city to city, that upon you may
jhll tb guilt @_ all th righteous blood shed on earth, from the blood of
righteous Abel to the blood of Zechariah, the son of Berechiah, whom
you murdered between the temple and the altar. Tm~ I say to you, all
these things shall come upon this generation. O Jerusalem, Jerusalem, who
kills the prophets and stones those who are sent to her! How often I
wanted to gather your children together, the way a hen gathers her
chicks under her wings, and you were unwilling. Behold, your house
is being left to you desolate!
24. Alfred Edersheim, Skztdw ofJewtih Social Lij (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1876
1972), p. 14.
130 BEFORE JERUSALEM FELL
Christ then goes on to describe the desolation of Israel's "house"
(temple) in Matthew 24. In Matthew 24:1-2 He clearly and distinctly
makes reference to the destruction of the Temple. And in the following
context He expands on this as involving the "abomination of
desolation" in the Temple (v. 15) and the "~eat tribulation" (v. 21),
which signi~ "the Son of Man coming on the clouds of the sky with
power and great glory" (v. 30). These events are said to be coming
upon "this generation" (v. 34), i.e., th ve~ gerwation which rejected and
'~ierced" Him. That gewratwn was to be destroyed in His Judgment-
Coming. And we know as a matter of indisputable historical fact that
the Temple was destroyed by Titus's August, A.D. 70, siege of it.25
Hence, as Jesus bears His cross to Calvary He exhorts the "daughters
ofJerusalem" to weep for themselves because of the coming j udgment
(Luke 23:28-31; cp. Rev. 6:16).
It is an interesting fact noted by a number of commentators that
John's Gospel is the only Gospel that does not contain the Olivet
Discourse, and that it would seem John's Revelation served as His
exposition of the Discourse. 'G Schaff has written that: "It is the one
and only prophetic book, but based upon the discourses of our Lord
on the destruction of Jerusalem and the end of the world, and his
second advent (Matt. ch. 24). "27 Thomas Dehany Bernard argues
quite rigorously in this vein:
And more particularly it is to be noticed, that this book i.e., Revelation
bears the same relation to the last discourse in St. Matthew,
which the Epistles bear to the last discourse in St. John. . . . Sitting
on the Mount of Olives with Jerusalem spread before him, and
questioned as to the sign of his coming and of the winding up of the
age, he gave the outlines of a prophetic history, which contained the
25. Josephus, Wars of thJms 7:1:1.
26. Even among those who do not see Revelation as John's record of the Olivet
Discourse, there are those who see Revelation as getting its framework tlom the apocalyptic
sections of the Synoptic Gospels, e.g., Ernest Findlay Scott, Tb Book of Rmslation, 4th
ed. (New York: Scribners, 1941), p. 30. Charles contends that John had the Synoptic
manuscripts before him at the time (R. H. Charles, T/u Revelation of St. John, 2 vols.
International Critical Commentary Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark, 1920 1 :lxxxiii). Others
have pointed out that Charles's arguments are unconvincing: Donald Guthrie, Nat
Zmtmwnt Znt,odwtion, 3rd cd. (Downers Grove, IL: Inter-Varsity Press, 1970), p. 956; J.
Oman, %Bed of Revdation (Cambridge University Press, 1923), p. 29; and L. A. Vos,
The Synoptic Traditions in the Apoca@@e (Amsterdam: Kampen, 1965), pa.rtim.
27. Philip Schaff, Histoy of t/u Chtitian Church, 8 vols. (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans,
1910 1950) 1:826.
The Thaw of Revelation 131
substance, bore the character, and must rule the interpretation, of the
later and larger revelation.28
Farrar speaks of Revelation as John's "stormy comment upon the
great discourse of our Lord on 01ivet."2g J. Stuart Russell puts the
matter as strongly as any commentator:
And here we find an explanation of what must have struck most
thoughtful readers of the evangelic history as extremely singular,
namely, the total absence in the Fourth Gospel of that which occupies
so conspicuous a place in the Synoptical Gospels, – the great prophecy
of our Lord on the Mount of Olives. The silence of, St. John in his
gospel is the more remarkable in that he was one of the four favoured
disciples who listened to that discourse; yet, in his gospel we find no
trace of it whatever. . . . But the difficulty is explained if it should
be found that th Apoca&pse is nothing else than a transfigured form oft/u
prophe~ on the Mount of Oliues.30
If, as seems likely, Revelation is indeed John's exposition of the
Olivet Discourse, we must remember that in the delivery of the
Discourse the Lord emphasized that it focused on Israel (Matt. 24:1,
2, 15-16; cp. Matt. 23:32ff.) and was to occur in His generation
(Matt. 24:34).
Conclusion
With these several contextual indicators before us, it would seem
certain that the theme of Revelation deals with Christ's Judgment-
Coming upon the gerwratwn of those Jews who cructjied Him. As Desprez
noted of this theme verse in conjunction with the temporal expectations
of the book: "NO scriptural statement is capable of more decided proof
than that the coming of Christ is the destruction of Jerusalem, and the close of
the Jmish dispensation."31 Such being the case, only a pre-A.D. 70 date
could be expected, for what event subsequent to the A.D. 70 destruction
of the Temple parallels the magnitude and covenantal significance
of this event? Surely the destruction of the Jewish Temple
(accomplished now for over 1900 years) and the gruesome Jewish
28. Bernard, Progress of Doctrine, p. 201.
29. Frederic W. Farrar, The Ear@ DqM ~ ChristianiU (New York: Cassell, 1884), p.
428.
30. Russell, Parowia, p. 374,
31. Desprez, Apoca~@, p. 9 (emphasis in original).
132 BEFORE JERUSALEM FELL
War with Rome must be in view here. In terms of Jewish calamity
and woe, what events near the reign of Domitian could equal those
that transpired just after Nero's reign?
This evidence is all the more compelling when, in the next
chapter, we consider it in terms of the temporal expectation of the
author.
9
THE TEMPORAL
EXPECTATION OF THE AUTHOR
One of the most helpful interpretive clues in Revelation is at the
same time both one of the most generally overlooked among lay
students of Scripture and one of the most radically reinterpreted by
evangelical scholars. This clue is the conten-zpora~ expectation of the
author regarding the fulfillment of the prophecies. John clearly expects
the soon fulfillment of his prophecy.
The Prominence of the Temporal Expectation
This expectation is emphasized in a variety of ways: by strategic
placement, frequent repetition, and careful variation. The temporal
expectation is strategically placed in that it appears three times in the
opening, introductory chapter (Rev. 1:1, 3, 19) and four times in the
final, concluding chapter (Rev. 22:6, 7, 12, 20). Its appearance in
both of these chapters is significant because these chapters bracket
the highly wrought drama of the prophetic body of the book contained
in the section from Revelation 4:1 through 22:6. These portions
of Revelation in which the time indicators are embedded are
generally of a more historical than prophetical character.
The temporal expectation receives frequent repetition in that it
occurs not only seven times in the opening and closing chapters, but
at least three times in the letters in chapters two and three (Rev. 2:16;
3:10).1
This expectation is also vaned in its manner of expression, almost
as if to avoid any potential confusion as to the specificity of its
meaning. Its variation revolves among three word groups. We will
1. In addition, the present tense possibly should be so understood in Revelation 1:7;
2:5.
133
134 BEFORE JERUSALEM FELL
survey these various expressions in order to prepare for our primary
arguments for the early date of Revelation that are yet to come. Our
survey will be grouped according to similarities of expression.
Verses Using the Tti~og Word Group
Revelation 1:1
The Revelation of Jesus Christ, which God gave Him to show to His
bond-servants, the things which must short~ take place; and He sent
and communicated it by His angel to His bond-servant John.
Revelation 2:16
"Repent therefore; or else I am coming to you guick~, and I will make
war against them with the sword of My mouth."
Revelation 3:11
"1 am coming quick~; hold fast what you have, in order that no one
take your crown."
Revelation 22:6
And he said to me, "These words are faithful and true"; and the Lord,
the God of the spirits of the prophets, sent His angel to show to His
bond-servants the things which must slwrt~ take place.
Revelation 22:7, 12,20
"And behokl, I am coming quick~. Blessed is he who heeds the words
of the prophecy of this book."
"Behold, I am coming quick~, and My reward is with Me, to render
to every man according to what he has done. "
"He who testifies to these things says, "Yes, I am coming quick~."
Amen. Come, Lord Jesus.
A cursory reading of the passages before us unavoidably leads
even the casual reader to conclude that John expected the fulfillment
of the prophecies within a very short period of time following his
writing. The crucial word in the statement in the opening verse, for
instance, is "shortly."
2. These expressions of temporal expectation are not the only internal indicators of
time in Revelation. There are many others (e.g., Rev. 6:10, 11, 17; 7:14 present
participle; 8:13; 10:6; 11:14, 17; etc.). However, these are strategically placed before and
after the body of the dramatic-symbolic prophecies section and thus determine the time
indications of those sections.
Tb Tmporal Expectation of th Author 135
Inadequate Views
Unfortunately, however, many commentators do not see the issue
as being so apparent. Dispensationalist scholar John Walvoord understands
Revelation's opening comment thus: "That which Daniel
declared would occur 'in the latter days' is here described as 'shortly'
(Gr. en tadzei), that is, 'quickly or suddenly coming to pass,' indicating
a rapidity of execution after the beginning takes place. The idea is
not that the event may occur soon, but that when it does, it will be
sudden (cf Luke 18:8; Acts 12:7; 22:18; 25:4; Rem. 16:20). A similar
word, tacky, is translated 'quickly' seven times in Revelation."3 Of
the Revelation 22 reference Walvoord notes: "The descriptive phrase
'shortly be done' literally translated is 'what it is necessary to do
quickly.' Here the noun is used. In verse 7, the adverb of the same
root is translated 'quickly.' The thought seems to be that when the
action comes, it will be sudden. Also it is to be regarded as impending
as if it is meant to be fulfilled at any time. In either case, it constitutes
a message of warning that those who believe should be alert. From
the stand-point of the agelong divine program, the events of the age
were impending even at the time John wrote this message though
some of them were thousands of years future."4
Fellow premillennialist (though non-dispensationalist) scholar
Robert Mounce concurs with Walvoord's main point: "John writes
3. John F. Walvoord, The Revelation ofJesus Christ (Chicago: Moody, 1966), p. 35. It
is terribly interesting that "the latter days" are said to have come already in the New
Testament era: Heb. 1:1,2, 9:26; 1 Cor. 10:11; Acts 2:16-17; 1 Pet. 1:20; 1 John 2:18.
What Daniel is commanded to "seal up" – because it looks into the distant future (Dan.
8:26) –John is commanded to "not seal up" because "the time is near" (Rev. 22:10). It
has been pointed out by several evangelical scholars that also contained in Daniel is an
important prophecy which seems to tie the close of the canon and all prophetic revelation
to the A.D. 70 destruction of the temple. Daniel 9:24, 26 reads: "Seventy weeks have
been decreed for your people and your holy city, to finish the transgression, to make an
end of sin, to make atonement for iniquity, to bring in everlasting righteousness, to seal
UP mum and propfu~, and to anoint the most holy place. . . . After the sixty-two weeks
the Messiah will be cut off and have nothing, and the people of the prince who is to
come will destroy the city and the sanctuary. And its end will come with a flood." This
seventy weeks of years period is widely held among conservative scholars to reach to the
First Advent of Christ. The usefulness of this passage is enhanced by the fact that Christ
draws from it in His Olivet Discourse (cf Matt. 2415) which is clearly related to the
A.D. 70 destruction of the Temple (cl Matt. 241-2). This argument deserves greater
explication, but may lead us afield from our primary concern: Revelation.
4. Ibid., p. 333.
136 BEFORE JERUSALEM FELL
that these events which constitute the revelation must take place
shortly. That more than 1900 years of church history have passed
and the end is not yet poses a problem for some. One solution is to
understand 'shortly' in the sense of suddenly, or without delay once
the appointed time arrives. Another approach is to interpret it in
terms of the certainty of the events in question. Of little help is the
suggestion that John may be employing the formula of 2 Peter 3:8
('with the Lord one day is as a thousand years'). . . . The most
satis~ing solution is to take the word in a straight-forward sense,
remembering that in the prophetic outlook the end is always imminent."
5
Morns (who probably would be classed as an amillennialist)
agrees with the premillennialist on this matter, although he takes the
route that seems to Mounce to be "of little help": "ShOrt~ is not
defined. . . . This could mean that the fulfdlment is expected in the
very near future. . . . But speedily has a reference to His time not
ours. With Him one day is as a thousand years and a thousand years
as one day (2 Pet. iii. 8). It is also possible that the term should be
understood as 'suddenly,' i.e., not so much 'soon' as 'without delay
when the time comes.'"6
Vincent's work differs little from the type suggested by Morris's
line of thought: "Expressions like this must be understood, not according
to human measurement of time, but rather as in 2 Pet. iii. 8.
The idea is, before long, as time is computed by God."7 Hoeksema,
an amillennialist, agrees when he writes of Revelation 1:1 that "we
must remember . . . that God's measure of time differs from ours."8
Swete, a postmillennialist, writes that "h T@EZ . . . must be inter-
5. Robert H. Mounce, Th Book of Revelation. New International Commentary on the
New Testament (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1977), pp. 64-65. Later, however, Mounce
makes an admission based on his view that must be pair-did to a conservative biblical
scholar "It is true that history has shown that 'the things which must shortly come to
pass' (1: 1) have taken longer than John expected" (p. 243). Were not bis numerous
expectations recorded in infallible Holy Writ? Were they merely the expectations of
"John the enthusiast," or were they not the expectations of 'John the divinely inspired
prophet" (see Rev. 1:1; 22:6, 20)? These were not incidental to his work, but repetitively
emphatic in it.
6. Leon Morris, The Revefution of.$'t. John (Grand Rapids Eerdmans, 1969), p. 45.
7. Marvin R. Vincent, Word Stu&s in the New Testarrwst, vol. 2: The Writings of John
(Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1887 1985), p. 407.
8. Herman Hoeksema, Behold, He Corrwth! An Exposition of the Book of Revelatwn (Grand
Rapids: Reformed Free Publishing, 1969), p. 9.
The Tm.oral Expectation of the Author 137
preted here and in xxii. 6 relatively to Divine measurements of
time."g
The Matter of Translation
It is a remarkable fact that although these (and numerous other)
scholars proffer such understandings of the statement, modern translations
almost universally read as ifJohn's expectation was for a soon
eventuation of the prophecies. Notice the following translations of the
crucial portion of Revelation 1:1:
"must shortly take place"
New American Standard Bible
New King James Version
"must shortly come to pass"
American Standard Version
Th New i%stament in Modern Speech, by R. F.
Weymouth
"must soon take place"
Revised Standard Version
New International Version
"must shortly happen"
New English Bible
"must very soon take place"
The New Testament in Modem English,
byJ. B. Phillips
Tb New Testament in the Language of the People,
by Charles B. Williams
"what must come to pass very soon"
Th Ho~ Bible: A Nm Translation,
by James Moffatt
"must shortly and speedily come to pass"
Amplified Bible
"what must happen very soon"
Today's English Version
9. Henry Barclay Swete, Comnwn.tury on Revelation (Grand Rapids: Kregel, 1906
1977), p. 2.
138 BEFORE JERUSALEM FELL
"what must happen soon"
New I'htarnent in th Lunguage of Today,
by William F. Beck
The translation under question (i.e., in Revelation 1:1, although
the other references cited should be kept in mind, as well) has to do
with the proper interpretation of the Greek phrase S% UfiXEL. T&xEl
is the dative singular of the noun Z6XW. Lexicographers seem to be
universally agreed with the translators as to the meaning of the word.
According to the Arndt and Gingrich Lexicon,10 T6XOG is used in the
Septuagint (and certain non-canonical writings) to mean "speed,
quickness, swiftness, haste." In the prepositional phrase ~v Z6XEZ, the
word is used adverbially in the Septuagint and Josephus to mean
"quickly, at once, without delay." The New Testament uses -cdxoc
in this manner, says Arndt and Gingrich, in Acts 10:33; 12:7; 17:15;
22:18. In Luke 18:8; Remans 16:20; 1 Timothy 3:14; Revelation 1:1;
and 22:6 this lexicon translates it "soon, in a short time. " The various
entries proffered at the zdxog entry by Thayer' include: "quickness,
speed" and "quickly, shortly, speedily, soon." Thayer lists Revelation
1:1 and 22:6 with the "speedily, soon" entries. Abbott-Smith concurs;
for the Revelation 1:1 and 22:6 texts he offers: "quickly, speedily,
soon. "12 Hort translates it "shortly, soon."'3 Noted Greek scholar and
church historian Kurt Aland agrees, when he comments on the word
as it is used in Revelation 22:12:
In the original text, the Greek word used is ra~ti, and this does not
mean "soon," in the sense of "sometime," but rather "now," "immediately."
Therefore, we must understand Rev. 22:12 in this way: "I am
coming now, bringing my recompense." The concluding word of Rev.
22:20 is: "He who testifies to these things says, 'surely I am coming
soon.'" Here we again find the word raxti, so this means: I am
coming quickly, immediately. This is followed by the prayer: "Amen.
Come, Lord Jesus!" . . . The Apocalypse expresses the fervent wait-
10. W. F. Amdt and F. W. Gingrich, eds., A Greek-English Lextion of tb New Ttitarnent
and Other Ear~ Chrirtian Litaature, 4th ed. (Chicago University of Chicago, 1957), pp.
814-815.
11. Joseph Henry Thayer, cd., Greek-English 12xicon of the New T~tumeat (New York:
American Book, 1889), p. 616.
12. G. Abbott-Smith, A Manual Greek Lexicon of tlu New Testament, 3rd ed. (Edinburgh:
T. &T. Clark, 1950), p. 441.
13. J. F. A. Hort, T/u Apoca@se of St. John: I-HI (London: Macmillan, 1908), p. 6.
The Temporal Expectation of the Author 139
ing for the end within the circles in which the writer lived — not an
expectation that will happen at some unknown point X in time (just
to repeat this), but one in the immediate present. 14
It would seem that only an interpretive a priori against the translation
of the noted lexicographers and modern translations could account
for the views of the commentators cited above.
T/z.e Matter of the "Sitz im Leben"
The deducible internal sitz im Leben ("situation in life") of the
recipients of Revelation also demands the maintenance of the preponderate
scholarly lexical and translational consensus. John writes to
seven contemporary historical churches (Rev. 1:11 ) facing very real
serious, repeated, and intensi@ing threats (Rev. 2-3). He speaks of
his own present enduring of "the tribulation" with them (Rev. 1:9).
He notes with concern the expectant cry from the altar: "How long,
O Lord?" (Rev. 6:10). Walvoord's view – that when Jesus eventually
comes He will come with great rapidity — would have offered no
consolation to these persecuted saints. To interpret this passage to
mean that some two or three thousand years in the future Jesus will
come with great rapidity would be a mockery of their historical
circumstances. Surely "this /v +yEz is the hinge and staple of the
book. When the advent of Jesus is hailed as a relie~ it is no consolation
to say that the relief will come suddenly; sudden or not, it must
come soon (v. 7), if it is to be of any service."'5
Mounce's second possibility – i.e., of the event's certainty of
occurrence — has little to commend it. After all, the certainty of
Revelation's eventuation is well-taken care of by the expression M
yev.5u19czz ("must occur"). A simple future tense ("will occur")
would have served well enough to insure the satisfaction of certainty.
If certainty of eventuation was all that was being urged, why repeatedly
employ the use of a term – in addition to 6st ysv.beaz ! — that
could generate false expectations? Such a question becomes all the
more crucial in light of the other similar word groups employed, as
will be shown shortly.
14. Kurt Aland, A Htstop of Chr-i.stianiQ, vol. 1: From th Beginnings to the Threshold of the
R@-matian, trans. James L. Schaaf (Philadelphia: Fortress, 1985), p. 88.
15. James Moffatt, Tb Revelation of St. John ttu Divim, in W. R. Nicoll, cd., Englishman's
Greek Te@ammt, vol. 5 (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, rep. 1980), p. 335.
140 BEFORE JERUSALEM FELL
Mounce's third possibility (endorsed by Swete, Morris, Hoeksema,
Vincent, and others) is just as implausible, and falters on the same
grounds. What mockery of anguished pain and mental suffering to
write to persecuted saints: "Help is on the way in God's time – which
may be a couple of thousand years or more away. " Swete even
observed that "the Coming is postponed indefinitely, though the old
watchword, '160ti ~pxopal zafi, still rings in our ears. " 16 Such
would be a "be thou warm and filled" comfort of little help to these
churches.
We will not deal as lengthily with the following two groups in
that most of the arguments for the former group readily apply to the
remaining ones. Nevertheless, to demonstrate the variation and repetition
of the theme, it is necessary to at least proffer a brief survey of
them.
Verses Using the 'Eyytiq Word Group
Revelation 1:3
Messed is he who reads and those who hear the words of' the prophecy,
and heed the things which are written in it; for the time is mar.
Revelation 22:10
And he said to me, "DO not seal up the words of the prophecy of this
book, for the time is mar."
All translations consulted on these verses concurred in either the
translation "at hand" or "near." 17 The crucial word in these passages
is 4yy@ (pronounced "engus"), which is an adverb of time formed
from two words: ,4v ("in, at") and yuiov ("limb, hand"). Hence the
meaning is literally "at hand." The Arndt and Gingrich Lextion offers
one word, "near," as the meaning. 18 Thayer expands on the idea of
the word: "of Time; concerning things imminent and soon to come
to pass." 19 He lists Revelation 1:3 and 22:10 in his series of examples.
The word is used frequently of chronologically near events, such as
approaching summer (Matt. 24:32), the Passover (Matt. 26: 18; John
2:13; 11:55), the Feast of Tabernacles (John 7:2), etc.
16. Swete, Revelation, p. W.
17. See the translations consulted above.
18. Amdt and Gingrich, Lxicon, p. 213.
19. Thayer, Lexkon, p. 164.
Tb Temporal Expectation of the Author 141
How could events related to the collapse of the Roman Empire
two or three hundred years in the future be considered "at hand," as
per Swete, Barnes, and others? Several generations of these Christians
would have waxed and waned over such a period. Even more
difficult to understand is how events two or three thousand years in the
future could be considered "at hand," as per Mounce, Walvoord, and
others. How could such events so remotely stretched out into the
future be "at hand"? But if the expected events were to occur within
a period of from one to five years — as in the case with Revelation if
the book were written prior to A.D. 70 – then all becomes clear.
Verses Using the iM4M0 Word Group
Rmelation 1:19
"Write therefore the things which you have seen, and the things which
are, and the things which shall take place after these things. "
Revelation 3:10
"Because you have kept the word of My perseverance, I also will keep
you from the hour of testing, that hour which is about to come upon
the whole world, to test those who dwell upon the earth."
Unfortunately, none of the major translations cited above translates
Revelation 1:19 in a literal fashion. Although, interestingly,
several do translate the same verb in a more literal fashion when it
appears in Revelation 3:10.20 Berry's The Interlinear Greek-English New
Testament, Young's Literal Translation of the Ho~ Bible, and Marshall's
Th Interli~ar Greek-English New Testament, however, are quite literal
in both instances.2' The relevant phrases read: "the things which are
about to occur" (Rev. 1: 19) and "being about to come" (Rev. 3:10).
Certainly it is true that the verb @Mo can indicate simply
"destined," or it can be employed in a weakened sense as a periphrasis
for the future tense. Nevertheless, when used with the aorist
infinitive — as in Revelation 1:19 — the word's preponderate usage
20. See AV, NASB, Weymouth, and Williams.
21. George Ricker Berry, The Intalinear Greek-Engli.rh New Ttitarrseat (Grand Rapids:
Zondervan, n.d. rep. 1961), pp. 626-629; Robert Young, i?se New Testament in Literal
Translation of t~ Ho~ Bible (Grand Rapids: Baker, 1898 rep. n.d.), p. 168; Alfred
Marshall, Th Interlinear Greek-Engltih New Testament, 2nd ed. (Grand Rapids: Zondewan,
1959), pp. 959, 966; and Jay P. Green, Sr., The Interlinear Bible, 2nd ed. (Grand Rapids:
Baker, 1983), p. 927.
142 BEFORE JERUSALEM FELL
and prefemed meaning is: "be on the point of, be about to."22 The
same is true when the word is used with the present infinitive, as in
Rev. 3:10.23 The basic meaning in both Thayer and Abbott-Smith is:
"to be about to. "24 Indeed, "M6MsIv with the infinitive expresses
imminence (like the future) ."25
All of this is particularly significant when the contexts of these
two occurrences of @M~ in Revelation are considered: the words
appear in near proximity with statements made up of the two other
word groups indicating "nearness." Revelation 1:19 is preceded by
Revelation 1:1 and 1:3 (which contain representatives of both the
@~oq and /@g word groups). Revelation 3:10 is followed by Revelation
3:11 (which contains a representative of the ~dxoq word group).
Clearly, then, the Revelation 1:19 and 3:10 references hold forth an
excited expectation of soon occurrence.2c
The Significance of
the Temporal Expectation
The question that quite naturally arises from this vivid and
imminent expectation is: What historical era best accounts for events
of the magnitude expected by John in Revelation? A magnitude that
is so covenantally and redemptively si~ificant as to be, in an important
and dramatic sense, a "coming" of Christ (Rev. 1:7; 2:5, 16, 25;
3:3, 11, 20; 16: 15; 22:7, 12, 20)? Is there an era that could represent
such a "coming" and that lies before the late date and afir the early
date? If so, then, in light of the clear imminent expectation of Revelation,
evangelical scholarship – which rightly disdains naturalistic ex
ewn.tzt prophecy — should be compelled to accept an early date on
the basis of Revelation's integrity and self-witness.
We must understand that Revelation calls for these imminent
events to come upon the Jews (i.e., "those who pierced Him," Rev.
22. Amdt and Gingrich, Lzxicon, p. 502 (lb).
23. Zbid., p. 502 (lc).
24. Thayer, Laiwn, p. 396; Abbott-Smith, Lzxicon, p. 282.
25. F. Blass and A. Debrunner, A Greek Grammar of the New Testament and Ottw Ear~
Christian Literature, trans. Robert W. Funk (Chicago: University of Chicago, 1961), p. 181
($ 356).
26. Furthermore, the expectation ofJohn is not unique to Revelation. Indeed, throughout
the New Testament corpus there are frequent anticipatory references to expectations
of some dramatic occurrences of prophetic and redemptive significance. See Mark 9:1;
Matt. 23:32-36;2421-3+ 26:6% Rem. 13:11, 12; 16:20; 1 Cor. 7:29-31, 26; Col. 3:6; 1
Thess. 2:16; Heb. 1025, 37; James 5:8,9; 1 Pet. 45, 7; 1 John 2:17, 18.
Th Tmporal Expectation of tlu Author 143
1:7; see also: Rev. 2:9; 3:9), the Church (cf Rev. 1:9; 2:9-10, 16; 3:2),
and the Roman Empire27 (Rev. 3:10). Thus, the book has reference
to the three divisions of mankind .28 That the decades of the A.D. 60s
best meet up to the requirements is evident from a number of
considerations.
First, the Jewish War of A.D. 67-70 witnessed the deaths of tens
of thousands of the Jews in Judea, and the enslavement of thousands
upon thousands more.29 This war eventuated in the final and complete
destruction of the Temple and of the entire sacrificial system for
Israel, as well as the total devastation of Jerusalem itself This
destruction was beyond comparison according to Josephus: "Whereas
the war which the Jews made with the Remans bath been the greatest
of all those, not only that have been in our times, but, in a manner,
of those that ever were heard o~ both of those wherein cities have
fought against cities, or nations against nations. . . . Accordingly it
appears to me, that the misfortunes of all men, from the beginning
of the world, if they be compared to these of the Jews, are not so
considerable as they were. "3° No later era witnesses any events that
even approach the fundamental covenantal significance of this
calamity.
Such an analysis of the covenantal and redemptive import of the
collapse of the Jewish order is demanded by the nature of Christianity
(cf. the Epistle to the Hebrews) and the nature of the final, New
Covenant (cf. Luke 22:20; 1 Cor. 11 :25). In an important sense John
"did not die till Christ had returned, in that sense of the 'close of the
aeon' to which His own words and that of His Apostles often
27. The Greek word translated "world" in Revelation 3:10 is okoupgvq, which is
generally understood to represent the civilized world, or the Roman Empire. See Arndt
and Gingrich, L.zxicon, p. 564 "the Roman Empire (which, in the exaggerated language
commonly used in ret to the emperors, was equal to the whole world. . .) ." Cp. Luke
2:1.
28. The three-fold division of the race – pagan, Jew, Christian – is seen in the
Scriptural record at 1 Cor. 10:32, Tertullian also speaks at length of such a division, To
ttw Natwns 1:8.
29. Josephus records more than 1,100,000 were slain, although most historians deem
the figure to be inflated, CC Josephus, Wars of tb Jews 6:9:3.
30. Josephus, Wan, Preface Sec. 1 and Sec. 4. Mosheim wrote of this calamity
"Throughout the whole history of the human race, we meet with but few, if any, instanms
of slaughter and devastation at all to be compared with this" (John Laurence von
Mosheim, Htitorkal Commmtaria on ttw State of Chri.stianip New York: Converse, 1854
1:125).
,
144 BEFORE JERUSALEM FELL
point. . . . The Apocalypse was written before he had witnessed the
coming of Christ and the close of the Old Dispensation, in the mighty
catastrophe which, by the voice of God in history, abrogated all but
the moral precepts which had been uttered by the voice of God on
Sinai."31
Second, the first persecution of Christianity by Imperial Rome
occurred from A.D. 64 to A.D. 68 (ending at the death of Nero).
This persecution was not only the first and one of the most severe,32
but it was the one that brought about the deaths of at least two of
Christianity's greatest leaders: Peter and Paul. Furthermore, with the
destruction of the Temple and Jerusalem, Christianity would be
clearly distinguished forever from Judaism.33
Third, from June, A.D. 68, through December, A.D. 69, the
Roman Empire suffered through a gruesome and severe Civil War
that almost brought the Empire down, and that had reverberations
throughout the Empire. This era witnessed the remarkable and
unique "Year of Four Emperors" (A.D. 68-69): Nero committed
suicide in June, A.D. 68, at the outbreak of civil revolt. Galba from
Spain declared himself emperor and was accepted as such by the
Praetorian Guard and Senate. In January, A.D. 69, the Praetorians
switched their allegiance to Otho, and slew Galba. The Rhine armies
then proclaimed Vitellius emperor. His armies defeated Otho's forces
at Bednacum. Upon Otho's suicide on April 17, A.D. 69, Vitellius
was declared emperor. Later the Eastern provinces declared Vespasian
emperor. Vespasian then took Rome in a destructive and
bloody battle, which saw the death of Vitellius on December 20,
A.D. 69.34
Nothing in or around Domitian's era had anywhere near the
dramatic significance of these events for all three of these cultures.
Regarding the Jews, the Temple was already gone and, since Vespasian,
the Jews throughout the Empire had already been forced to
31. Frederic W. Farrar, The Ear~ Drys of Christianity (New York Cassell, 1884), pp.
404,406.
32. Philip Schaff, Hirtov of the Chrirtian Church, 8 vols. (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans,
1910 1950) 1:386.
33. To be discussed much more fully in Chapter 13.
34. For a full historical account see Tacitus's writings. For a brief summary see N.
G. L. Hammond and H. H. Scullard, O.@ord Clamkal Dictiorurry, 2nd ed. (Oxford:
Clarendon, 1970), p. 93Q or Wdliarn L. Langer, cd., An Erqw'@wdia of World Histmy, 5th
ed. (Boston: Houghton Miillin, 1972), p. 121.
Th Tmporal Expectation of the Author 145
pay the Didrachma (known as the "Jewish Tax"), which was used
to build the pagan temple Jupiter Capitolina. Regarding Christianity,
the persecution of Domitian (if it did, in fact, occur)35 was the second
persecution of Christianity, was not as severe or long-lasting, and did
not result in the death of any inspired apostle. Regarding Rome,
although Domitian was assassinated, the impact on the Empire was
negligible in that a relatively orderly transfer of power followed.
Conclusion
Thus, it would seem that our first two considerations – i.e., the
theme and the expectation of Revelation – powerfully suggest the
prima facie plausibility of a pre-A.D. 70 writing of Revelation. A
preterist approach to Revelation seems to be demanded by both the
thematic statement and the temporal expectation of the author.
Unfortunately, evangelical scholarship in the last fifty years has been
hesitant to adopt a preterist hermeneutic. This has left the impression
— at least among many lay students — that preterism is intrinsically
liberal.
Now we must admit that "some variant of this view i.e., preterism
is adopted by most modern read: liberal scholars. "36 Nevertheless,
we must recognize that there is what J. W. Roberts calls "left
wing" and "right wing" camps in the preterist school .37 Thus, contrary
to some evangelical complaints,38 there is clearly "a radical
difference between those Preterists who acknowledge a real prophecy
and permanent truth in the book, and the rationalistic Preterists who
regard it as a dream of a visionary which was falsified by events."39
The preterist approach to Revelation must be scrutinized in terms
of its own intrinsic merits, irrespective of the widespread employment
of the system among radical scholars.
35. See Chapter 17.
36. Morris, Revelation, p. 17.
37. J. W. Roberts, fi &elation to John (Austin, TX: Sweet, 1974), pp. 15, 16.
38. E.g., George Eldon Ladd, A Commmtary on th Reuslation of John (Grand Rapids:
Eerdmans, 19?2), p. 11.
39. Schaff, Histoy 1:837-838.
10
THE IDENTITY OF THE SIXTH KING
We find an extremely important chronology indicator in Revelation
17 where the "sixth king" is mentioned. The relevant portion of
the text containing the reference to the sixth king is in Revelation
17:3,6-13:
And he carried me away in the Spirit into a wilderness; and I saw a
woman sitting on a scarlet beast, full of blasphemous names, having
seven heads and ten horns. . . . And I saw the woman drunk with
the blood of the saints, and with the blood of the witnesses of Jesus.
And when I saw her, I wondered greatly. And the angel said to me,
"Why do you wonder? I shall tell you the mystery of the woman and
of the beast that carries her, which has the seven heads and the ten
horns. The beast that you saw was and is not, and is about to come
up out of the abyss and to go to destruction. And those who dwell on
the earth will wonder, whose name has not been written in the book
of life from the foundation of the world, when they see the beast, that
he was and is not and will come. Here is the mind which has wisdom.
The seven heads are seven mountains on which the woman sits, and
they are seven kings; five have fidlen, one is, the other has not yet
come; and when he comes, he must remain a little while. And the
beast which was and is not, is himself also an eighth, and is one of the
seven, and he goes to destruction."
The particularly significant statement in this section is found in
verses 9 and 10: "Here is the mind which has wisdom. The seven
heads are seven mountains on which the woman sits, and thy are seven
kings; jive he fallen, one is, the other has not yet come; and when he
comes, he must remain a little while."
The Hermeneutical Problem
Unfortunately, an alleged difficulty seems to plague interpreters
146
Th ldenti~ of th Sixth King 147
in regard to this passage. The problem is that John introduces the
passage in such a way as to appear to suggest the exceeding difficulty
of the interpretation of the matter. After the vision is shown to (Rev.
17: 1) and seen by (Rev. 17:3) John, the angel speaking to him says
(v. 9a): "Here is the mind which has wisdom" (the Greek of the
statement is: d6E d vofiq d ~xcw oopiav. Then follows our text.
Despite the fact that there are no lexically difficult words involved,
this phrase has generated extensive debate among commentators.
We will consider the reservations of two commentators by way
of illustration of the false perceptions regarding the alleged interpretive
problem. Regarding the matter, dispensationalist Walvoord notes:
"The explanation of the beast introduced by the unusual phrase 'here
is the mind which bath wisdom' anticipates the difficulty and complexity
of the revelation to follow. The reader is warned that spiritual
wisdom is required to understand that which is unfolded." Postmillennialist
H. B. Swete urges caution on the same basis: "What is
to follow will put to the proof the spiritual discernment of the hearer
or reader. . . . As Arethas points out, the wisdom which is demanded
is a higher gift than ordinary intelligence. . . . The interpretation
now begins, but (as the reader has been warned) it is itself
an enigma, for which more than one solution may be found."2
Despite the asseverations of these commentators, it would seem
that those who allege that the phrase introduces an ambiguity are in
essence turning the statement on its head. In point of fact, the context
is extremely clear: the express purpose of the statement is to provide
an elucidation of the matter. Let us consider the situation carefully.
In verses 1-6 of Revelation 17, one of the seven angels appears
to John for the purpose of showing him the judgment of the "great
harlot" (v. 1). When the angel "carried" him "away in the Spirit,"
John "saw" the woman on the beast (v. 3). This was a revelatory
vision-experience, such as the opening verse of Revelation indicated
John would receive (Rev. 1:1, "signified"). By definition revelatory
visions are symbolic representations of prophetic truths or events.
The visions as such are the more difficult portions of Revelation, by
1. John F. Walvoord, T/u Revelation ofJesu.s Chrrkt (Chicago: Mcody, 1966), p. 250.
2. Hemy Barclay Swete, Commmtay on Rewlation (Grand Rapids: Kregel, 1906
1977), pp. 219-220.
148 BEFORE JERUSALEM FELL
the very nature of the case. Indeed, in the very situation before us,
John expresses his own alarm and dismay at the meaning of the
vision: "And when I saw her, I wondered greatly" (v. 6). The verb
(eavpa<o, "1 wonder") and noun (9atipa, "wonderment, amazement")
are united here to indicate intensity of confused amazement.
This expression of intense wonder is augmented by the addition of
the comparative, ptya ("great"). Literally John says: "1 wondered
with great wonder. " Furthermore, the vision itself is called a "mystery"
(puo-njp~ov) by the angel (v. 7).
Nevertheless, we are not left to our own ingenuity to interpret the
mysterious vision. The angel expressly tells John: "Why do you
wonder? I shall tell -ym the mystery of the woman and of the beast
that carries her, which has the seven heads and ten horns" (v. 8).
That which follows, then, is the angelic exposition of the vision. Thus,
that which is stated in verses 9 and 10 occurs in the expository rather
than in the visionary portion of the passage. Earlier in the passage
when the angel took John to "see" the vision (v. 1), the language
used was * for symbolic visual experience: "I will show" (&s-@%,
from c$suctipz). But in verse 7 the language is expository: "I will tell
you" (tp~, the future of Myti). It indicates that the following is given
in explanation of the vision. As such, the passage is similar to John's
experience in Revelation 7:9 and 13, 14: "After these things I looked,
and behold, a great multitude, which no one could count, fi-om every
nation and all tribes and peoples and tongues, standing before the
throne and before the Lamb, clothed in white robes, and palm
branches were in their hands. . . . And one of the elders answered,
saying to me, 'These who are clothed in the white robes, who are
they, and from where have they come?' And I said to him, 'My lord,
you know.' And he said to me, 'These are the ones who come out of
the great tribulation, and they have washed their robes and made
them white in the blood of the Lamb.'" Here in Revelation 7 John
has an explanation provided him for that which he saw. Still further,
we must note that this passage differs greatly from a later one where
John is actually forbidden to write something that he heard (Rev.
10:4). There, in Revelation 10:4, the meaning was not to be granted
to the recipients of Revelation, contrary to the stated purposes in
Revelation 7 and 17.
Consequently, as we approach Revelation 17:9 and 10, we should
not expect to become more perplexed. Actually, the difficulty that
Th Identi~ of th Sixth King 149
requires wisdom is due to the fact that the visual representation being
elucidated has a two-fold referent: "The seven heads are 1 seven
mountains on which the woman sits, and they are 2 seven kings"
(w. 9-10a). This feature would doubtless escape the interpreter without
the angelic explication. It would appear, then, that the expression
"here is the mind which has wisdom" is introducing the interpretation
of a vision so that he who follows the angelic interpretation has
wisdom. To argue that the following statements become more difficult
would go contrary to the stated purpose of the angelic explanation.
This leads us to our next consideration, which gives us important
information for the determination of the date of Revelation.
The Seven Hills
The first aspect of the historical allusion to note in these expositional
verses is the reference to the place where the woman sits. The
text unambiguously states: "The seven heads are seven mountains on
which the woman sits." Here is an area described geographically as
having "seven mountains." Perhaps no point is more obvious in
Revelation than this one: Rome is symbolized here by the seven
mountains. Rome is the one city in history that has been distinguished
for and universally recognizable by its seven hills. The famous seven
hills are the Palatine, Aventine, Caelian, Esquiline, Viminal, Quirinal,
and Capitoline hills.3
Suetonius and Plutarch record for us that in the time of Domitian
the festival of Se@montium ("the feast of the seven hilled city") was
held annually in December to celebrate the seven hills enclosing
Rome.4 Archaeologists have discovered the Coin (or Medallion) of
Vespasian that exhibits a picture of the goddess Roma as a woman
seated on seven hills.5 The famed seven hills are frequently mentioned
among ancient writers; see Ovid, Claudian, Statius, Pliny, Virgil,
Horace, Properties, Martial, Cicero, Sibylline Oracles, Tertullian, and
3. William Smith, Dictionay of Greek arsd Roman Geography, vol. 2 (Boston: Little,
Brown, 1870), pp. 719-721.
4. Suetonius, Domztian 4.
5. Ethelbert Stauffer, Chrirt and the Caesars: Historical Sketdzss, 3rd cd., trans. K. and
R. Gregor Smith (Philadelphia: Westminster, 1955), p. 173. Fausset, in Robert Jamieson,
A. R. Fausset, and David Brown, A Comm.entQV, Critical and Explanatory on the Old and New
Testamenk, 2 vols. (Hartford: Scranton, n.d.) 2:591 (at Rev. 17:9).
150 BEFORE JERUSALEM FELL
Jerome.G This point is well nigh indisputably certain. Indeed, "there
is scarce a poet that speaks of Rome but observes it."7 In light of this
fact, Mounce's observation is well-taken: "There is little doubt that
a first-century reader would understand this reference in any way
other than as a reference to Rome, the city built upon seven hills.
Rome began as a network of seven hill settlements on the left bank
of the Tiber, and was from the time of Servius Tullius (her sixth king
in the pre-imperial era an W+S se@col/ti) ."8
Adam Clarke, who argues against the reference being to first
century imperial Rome, struggles against the stream when he admits:
"This verse has been almost universally considered to allude to the
seven hills upon which Rome originally stood. "g G.R. Beasley-
Murray sees this geographical reference as putting the identity of the
beast as Rome "beyond doubt."1° H. B. Swete agrees when he writes:
"No reasonable doubt can be entertained as to the meaning of these
words." 11 Hendriksen writes: "Most commentators, whether preterists
or parallelisms — and even some futurists — grant this point. " 12
By everyone's dating, the Revelation was written sometime during
the Roman Empire, and almost every commentator agrees it was
after Christianity had begun to be persecuted by Rome (under Nero
in A.D. 64). It is difficult to believe that John would write to the seven
historical churches in Asia (Rev. 1:11) whose members lived in such
an age of great trouble (Rev. 1:9; 2:10; 3:10), make reference to an
evil power noted for its "seven mountains," and expect them to
surmise that he spoke of anything other than Rome. Especially since
6. Ovid, De Tristia 1:5:69 and Elep"ae + Claudian, IrI Praise of Staltion, 3:135; Statius,
Sylvae 1 and 2:191; Pliny, Natural Hi.rtoty, 3:5, 9; Virgil, Aeneid, 6:782 and Georgia 2:535;
Horace, Cam Secularae, 7; Properties 3:10, 57; Martial, 46+ Cicero, ad Atticum 6:5;
Sibylline Oracles 2:18; 11:1 l% 13:45; 14:108; Tertullian, Apology, 35; and Jerome, LWer
to Marcella.
7. John GI1l, An Exposition of tlu New lhtament, vol. 3 (Streamwood, IL: Primitive
Baptist Library, 1909 1976), p. 824.
8. Robert H. Mounce, Tfu Book of Revelation. New International Commentary on the
New Testament (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1977), pp. 313-314.
9. Adam Clarke, Clarke's Commentagj 6 vols. (Nashville Abingdon, n.d.) 6:1038.
10, G. R. Beasley-Murray, "Revelation, " in Francis Davidson, ed., New Bible Commentary,
2nd ed. (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1954), p. 1189.
11. Swete, Revelation, p. 220.
12. William Hendriksen, More Than Congwwrs (Grand Rapids: Baker, 1967), p. 274
n. 5.
Th Identi@ of th Sixth King 151
he exhorted them to read, hear, and heed the book (Rev. 1:3; 22:7).
' As Stuart noted ofJohn: "He wrote, not only in order that he might
be read, but also that he might be understood. Why then should we
suppose, that a mind like his would not accomplish its design?" 13
Everywhere throughout the empire Rome was known as the city on
seven hills. When John wrote Revelation (whether in the A.D. 60s
or in A.D. 95-96) there was no other city conceivable that was so
universally noted for its seven hills. It should be expected that as
inspired Scripture, it would be profitable (2 Tim. 3:16) to its historical
recipients. Indeed, this would be a major and distinctive difference
between Revelation and the representatives of the uninspired
apocalyptic genre. All of this is especially compelling in that the
expectation of the book (as dealt with in the previous chapter) is of
the soon eventuation of the prophecies and their contemporary relevance
to the original audience. The matter of the relevancy of the
referent to the original audience should be a paramount concern for
the modern interpreter. Consequently, it should not be considered
an insoluble dilemma.
The Line of Kings
Now we come to the specific portion of the Revelation 17 statement
that is crucial for determining the date of Revelation. Verse 10
states factually and in a straightforward manner: "They are seven
kings; five have f~len, one is, the other has not yet come; and when
he comes, he must remain a little while."
Here we learn that five kings have "fallen" (3mEoGzv) and one "is"
(#rev). If there is any chronologically precise statement in the book,
Revelation 17:10 should certainly be it. Reuss notes that "the time of
composition . . . may be closely fixed by xvii. 10."14 Torrey is quite
certain of this passage's utility: "This certainly seems to provide, as
exactly as could be expected of an apocalypse, information as to the
time – the precise reign – in which the book was composed."15 Although
demurring from its acceptance as such (due to his liberal
13. Moses Stuart, Camrnda~ on tb Apoca@se, 2 vols. (Andove~ Allen, Merrill, and
Wardwell, 1845) 2:319.
14. Eduard Wilhelm Eugen Reuss, Histoy of ttw Sacred Scriptures of the New Testam.znt
(Edinburgh: T.& T. Clark, 1884), p. 160.
15. Charles Cutler Torrey, The Apoca~pse ofJohn (New Haven: Yale, 1958), p. 60.
152 BEFORE JERUSALEM FELL
fragment hypothesis theory), Moffatt comments that this is "the one
passage . . . which appears to be a water-mark of the date." 16
N1 that is required for determining the chronology indicated by
Revelation 17:10 is that we find a series of seven kings, five of whom
"have fhllen," the sixth of whom "is" still ruling, and the last of whom
was of but a brief reign. The one who "is" will be the king alive and
ruling at the time John wrote Revelation. Then, of course, the discovery
of the dates of his reign will serve as the twnini within which
Revelation must have been composed.
We provided ample demonstration above to show that the place
of the seven kings is the famed city of "seven hills," i.e., Rome. And
given the contemporary expectation of the book, the obvious candidates
for fulfilling the role of the seven kings would have to be the
emperors of Rome, the line of the Caesars. It is an indisputable
historical fact that the Caesars were ruling at the time John wrote
Revelation, regardless of whether an early (pre-A.D. 70) or late (c.
A.D. 95) date be advocated.
Various Approaches
Though it seems certain that the line of the emperors is in view
in Revelation 17:10, nevertheless, several difficulties arise as to the
proper enumeration of the line of the Caesars. In regard to the
chronology, two particularly important questions arise: With whom
does the enumeration begin? And, are any of the Gaesars to be
omitted?
Some scholars (e.g., Dusterdieck, Bleek, Swete, Weigall, Morris,
and even Torrey and Robinson) 17 begin the counting of the emperors
with Augustus, in that he was the first official ;emperor." Some (e.g.,
Dusterdieck, Gilmour, and Rist) 18 in their overall enumeration ornit
16. James Moffatt, 2% Revelation of St. John the Divine, in W. R. Nicoll, cd., Engltihm's
Greek Testarnd, vol. 5 (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, rep. 1980), p. 318.
17. Friedrich Dusterdieck, Criticul and Exegetial Handbook to th Revelation of John, 3rd
cd., trans. Henry E. Jacobs (New York Funk and Wagnalls, 1886), p. 48. Friedrich
Bleek, An Introduction to the New Tatarnent, 2nd cd., trans. William Urwick, vol. 2 (Edinburgh:
T. & T. Clark, 1870), p. 226. Swete, Revelation, p. 220. Arthur Weigall, Nero:
Emperor of Rome (London: Butterworth, 1933), p. 298. Leon Morris, The Revelation of St.
John (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1969), p. 38. Torrey, Reoelatbn, p. 60. John A. T.
Robinson, Redating the New Teskzmmt (Philadelphia: Westminster, 1976), p. 243.
18. Diisterdieck, Revelation, p. 49. S. MacLean Gilmour, "The Revelation to John,"
in Charles M. Laymen, cd., %Irttapreter's One Volume Commentav on the Bible (Nashville:
The Identip of th Sixth King 153
Galba, Otho, and Vitellius on the grounds that they were a mere
interregnum between Nero and Vespasian in that Suetonius calls
them a "rebellw trium principum." 19
Other scholars (e.g., Mounce, Beckwith, and Sweet)*" see the
"seven kings" reference as primarily symbolic, making no essential
historical allusions. Employing this approach it may be said that
'~ohn's history, like his geography and arithmetic, is spiritual (11:8);
his hearers needed to be told not who was reigning but his spiritual
affiliations. The number seven is symbolic — there were many more
churches than seven – though it can refer to actual entities. John means
to represent the Roman power as a historic whole."21 Some argue
that the series was inconsequential because John was not a "statistical
historian" but ratier an "apocalyptic seer." Hence, the number seven
involved appeared merely to conform to the sacred requirement of
the task.22
Still others, particularly among futurists (e.g., Walvoord, Seiss,
Ladd, and Alford)23 hold that the "heads" represent successive kingdoms.
This school generally denies the geographical referent as indicating
Rome. In this view the seven heads/mountains are representative
either of "seven different manifestations of the world-power in
history"24 or "seven kings who represent seven successive forms of
the kingdom," that is, "to successive imperial governments."25
Our Approach
Let us consider the most readily apparent and surely the correct
Abhgdon, 1971), p. 964. Martin Rist, "The Revelation of St. John the Divine," in The
Interpreter's Bible Commentary, vol. 12 (New York Abingdon, 1957), p. 495.
19. Suetonius, Ves@.sian 1.
20. Mounce, Revelation, pp. 315-316. Isbon T. BeckWith, Tb Apoca~pse of John: Studies
in Zntrodudion (Grand Rapids Baker, 1917 1967), p. 257.
21. J. P. M. Sweet, Rewlation. Westminster Pelican Commentaries (Philadelphia
Westminster, 1979), p. 257.
22. Shirley Jackson Case, 77u Revelation of John: A Histotial Interpretation (Chicago
University of Chicago, 1919), pp. 343-344.
23. Walvoord, Revelation, pp. 250K. Joseph A. Seiss, The Apoculy@e (Grand Rapids:
Zondervan, 1957), pp. 391ff. George Eldon Ladd, A ComrnentaV on the Raelation of John
(Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1972), pp. 229fI Henry Alford, The Creek New 72stamerd, vol.
4 (Chicago Moody, rep. 1958), pp. 710ff.
24. Herman Hoeksema, Behold, He Cometh! An Expm-itwn of the Book of Revelation (Grand
Rapids: Reformed Free Publishing, 1969), pp. 572,573.
25. Walvoord, Revelation, p. 252.
154 BEFORE JERUSALEM FELL
view first. Then we will comment upon both the objections to the
above proposed view and the deficiencies of the opposing views.
It is true that the Roman empire was officially established as an
empire under Augustus, and that there are some scattered lists of the
emperors that seem to begin the enumeration with Augustus. Nevertheless,
it seems patent that the enumeration of the "kings" should
most logically begin with Julius Caesar. As Stuart observed: "At
most, only an occasional beginning of the count with Augustus can
be shown, in classic authors. The almost universal usage is against
it ~26
For instance, as we consider TacitUs's statements in Annals 1:127
and Histmie~ 1:1,28 we discover that in regard to information relevant
to our inquiry he really only states two things of consequence regarding
Augustus as emperor. One is that Julius refused to be called
"king," while Augustus accepted such a designation. The other is
that the empire was established on an uninterrupted foundation with
Augustus (upon Julius's death the empire was involved in a power
struggle for twelve years). Here, then, we do not have a denial of
Julius's role as the first "king" of the empire at all. Neither do we
have a denial of his role as the first ruler of what shortly would
become the Roman Empire.
The same is true of the statement of Aurelius Victor (4th century)
in his Abbreviated History of t~ Camars. He, too, speaks of the uninterrupted
state of rule in Rome. In his E@-tome (1:1) is another example
of the idea of permanency, along with formal usage of the titles
Imperator and Augustw. Nothing he writes precludes the understanding
that Julius was the first of the Roman Emperors. Other such
references are much later than even Victor, and are thus too far
beyond the era in which John wrote to be of much value. The
determination should be based upon relatively contemporaneous
authorities current in his day.
As a matter of historical fact, we must note that Julius did claim
26. Stuart, A@ca@e 2:276.
27. Annals 1:1 states: "Neither Cinna nor Sulla created a lasting despotism: Pompey
and Crassus quickly forfeited their power to Caesar, and Lepidus and An tony their
swords to Augustus, who, under the style of 'Prince,' gathered beneath his empire a world
outworn by civil broils."
28. Histories 1:1 notes: "After the battle of Actium, when the intereats of peace required
that all power should be concentrated in the hands of one man. . . ."
The Idh.tip of the Sixth King 155
the title Zmperator. Suetonius clearly records his claim to the "praenomen
ImPeratoris. "29 This puts him in line with Augustus30 and the following
emperors who naturally claimed the same. Indeed, the following
emperors even called themselves by his name, "Caesar."
But more compelling than this are the several contemporary and
nearly contemporary lists that include Julius in the line of the Caesars,
and as the first of the line. In his Lives of the Twelve Caesars,
Roman historian Suetonius (c. A.D. 70-160) begins his numbering
of the Caesars with Julius. His first book. in his Lives of the Twelve
Cazzsars is entitled The Divim Julius. Likewise another Roman Historian,
Dio Cassius (c. A.D. 150-235), numbers Julius as the first of the
emperors.3
For our purposes perhaps the most decisive representative of
those who reckon the emperors from Julius is the Jewish writer
Flavius Josephus. Not only do his dates (A.D. 37-101) overlap the
very period ofJohn and the New Testament, but he is also a Jew from
Palestine, and his works were written for both the Remans and the
Jews. Surely his reckoning would reflect contemporary opinion among
the Jews and the Remans. In his Antiquities he calls Augustus the
"second" and Tibenus the "third" emperor.32 Later Gaius is called
the "fourth."33 In a later chapter he calls Julius the "first who
transferred the power of the people to himself."34 In addition, we
should understand that the Jewish people were particularly fond of
Julius. He granted them a legal status and many special privileges.
Suetonius records the great lamentation of the Jews for Julius when
he died.35 A Jew, such as Josephus and John, would naturally have
conceived of Julius as the first of the Caesars.
Further evidence for a common Jewish reckoning of Julius as the
first emperor appears in 4 Ezra (a composite work with Christian
additions,3G sometimes called 2 Esdras). This work was written and
29. Suetonius, Juliur 76.
30. See for example, Aurelius Victor, E@"tQrm 1:1.
31. Dio Cassius, Roman HistoU 5.
32. Antiquities 18:2:2.
33. Antiquities 18:6:10.
34. Antiquities 19:1:11.
35. Juliw 84
36. Bruce M. Metzger, "The Fourth Book of Ezra," in James H. Charlesworth, cd.,
Old 7kmmt Pwudepigrapha, 2 VOIS (Garden City, NY Doubleday, 1983) 1:517.
156 BEFORE JERUSALEM FELL
edited between A.D. 100 and 120, with four chapters being added in
the third century.37 The crucial statement reads: "Behold, the days
are coming when a kingdom shall arise on earth, and it shall be more
terri$ing than all the kingdoms that have been before it. And twelve
kings shall reign in it, one after another. But the second that is to
reign shall hold sway for a longer time than any other of the twelve."38
Here Julius is included in the line of the twelve Caesars, for the
reference to the "second" king is obviously to Augustus Caesar,
whose 44 year reign was one-third of the combined reigns of the first
twelve emperors.
The same is true in chapter 11: "And I looked, and behold, on
the right side one wing arose, and it reigned over all the earth. And
while it was reigning it came to its end and disappeared, so that its
place was not seen. Then the next wing arose and reigned, and it
continued to reign a long time. And while it was reigning its end
came also, so that it disappeared like the first. And behold, a voice
sounded, saying to it, 'Hear me, you who have ruled the earth all this
time; I announce this to you before you disappear. After you no one
shall rule as long as you, or even half as long.' The third wing raised
itself up, and held the rule like the former ones, and it also disappeared."
3g Coggins notes that "the first wing can be identified as
Julius Caesar because the next wing is clearly Augustus.'ya According
to Box "one of the surest results of the critical discussion is that
in the ori~nal vision the greater wings must represent the six Julian
Emperors, beginning with Julius Caesar. The identification of the
second ruler with Augustus (cf. 11:15- 17) is unmistakable, and makes
the reckoning from Julius Caesar certain."4' Again the clear reference
is to Julius as the "first" and Augustus (the longest reigning emperor)
as the one who followed him, who in turn, is followed by the "third."
And this "prophecy" was given in the general era ofJohn's time.
37. Metzger, "Fourth Ezra," OTP 1:517, 520, 522. See also R. J. Coggins and M. A.
Knibb, T/u Ftrst and Seuma' BookJ of Esdnr.r. Cambridge Bible Commentary on the New
English Bible (London: Cambridge, 1979), p. 115; J. M. Myers, I and 2 Esdrm: Introduction,
Translation and Comnwntury. Anchor Bible (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1974), pp.
129K.; and Robinson, Redating, pp. 247, 315. Howard Clark Kee, The Originr of Chri.stiani~:
Sources and DocunwztJ (Englewcmd, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1973), p. 191.
38.4 Ezra 12:1311;OTP 1:550.
39.4 Ezra 11: 13ff.; OTP 1:548.
40. Coggins and Knibb, Esdras, p. 240.
41. G. H. Box, T/w EZra-A@zlMse (London: Pitman, 1912), p. 261.
The Identip of the Sixth King 157
The Epistle of Barnabas 4:4 speaks of ten kings upon the earth:
"Ten kings shall reign upon the earth, and a little king shall rise up
after them, who shall subdue under one three of the kings." The three
subdued kings represent Galba, Otho, and Vitellius .42 The tenth
must be Vespasian, which indicates a start from Julius.43 According
to many scholars, this work was written around the year A.D. 100.W
Thus, it too is in the era of John's Revelation, and it necessarily
implies that the emperor count in that era began with Julius.
The earlier Sibylline Oracles, as well, follow the pattern of beginning
with Julius. Book 5 of the Sibylline Oracles speaks cryptically
of Julius:
There will be the first prince who will sum up twice ten with his initial
letter. He will conquer long in wars. He will have his first letter of
ten, so that after him will reign whoever obtained as initial the first
of the alphabet.45
Collins's note on this reference specifies that it is to Julius Caesar
% Book 8 of the Sibylline Oracles is dated at A.D. 180.47 The
reference at 8:135-138 to there being "fifteen kings" requires a counting
of Julius. Collins notes of this section that it speaks of "Roman
kings, beginning with Julius Caesar and counting Galba, Otho, and
Vitellius."48 Sibylline Oracles 11:26 lff. mention Julius as the first of
the Roman emperors.
42. Bell notes that "no ancient writer of whom I have knowledge omits these three
men from his account of Roman history. . . . An ancient writer could no more have
omitted them from his list of emperors than a modern American historian could omit
William Henry Harrison, the ninth president, who caught pneumonia at his inauguration
in 1841 and died a month later. His influence on the course of American history was
absolutely nil, but he was duly elected, inaugurated, and therefore must be reckoned in
any accurate listing of men who have held that otlice. The same principle applies to
Galba, Otho and Vitellius" (Albert A. Bell, Jr., "The Date of John's Apocalypse. The
Evidence of Some Roman Historians Reeonsidered," New Te~tarnmt ,$.tudie~ 10 1977-
78 :99)
43. Robinson, Redating, p. 243.
44. Alexander Roberts and James Donaldson, eds., Th Ank-Nicene Fathers ANF, 10
vols. (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, late 19th c. 1975) 1:133-135. In their introductory
remarks, Roberts and Donaldson mention Hilgenfeld (1866) as one "who has devoted
much attention to this Epistle" and who "holds that 'it was written at the close of the first
century by a Gentile Christian of the school of Alexandria. . . .'"
45. Sil#ne Onwles 5: 12-15; OTP 1:393.
46. Collins, "Sibylline Oracles," OTP 1:393.
47. Ibid., p. 416.
48. Ibid., p. 421, note q.
158 BEFORE JERUSALEM FELL
Theophilus of Antioch lived c. A.D. 115 to 181.49 He wrote:
"Afterwards those who are called emperors began in this order: first,
Caius Julius . . . , then Augustus."5°
Other later sources (and thus less significant) also concur in
beginning with Julius Caesar. Moses Stuart lists the following witnesses:
The Ch-onicon Pawhale (dated about 400), Georgius Syncellus
in his Chronognzflhy (about 800), and Nicephorus Patriarch (about
824) in his Com@nd of Chronography.51
From the above considerations we are justified in viewing the
kings list of Revelation 17 as indicating the line of Roman emperors
as beginning with Julius Caesar. Consequently, the count of the
emperors into the first century is as follows:
1. Julius Caesar (49-44 B. C.)
2. Augustus (31 B. C.-A.D. 14)
3. Tiberius (A.D. 14-37)
4. Gaius, also known as Caligula (A.D. 37-41)
5. Claudius (A.D. 41-54)
6. Nero (A.D. 54-68)
7. Galba (A.D. 68-69) l
8. Otho (A.D. 69)
9. Vitellius (A.D. 69)
10. Vespasian (A.D. 69-79)
Revelation 17:10 says: "They are seven kings; five have fallen,
i.e., Julius, Augustus, Tiberius, Caligula, and Claudius, one is i.e.,
Nero, the other has notyet come; and when he comes, he must remain
a little while i.e., Galba reigned from June, 68 to January, 69 ." It
seems indisputably clear that the book of Revelation must be dated
in the reign of Nero Caesar, and consequently before his death in June,
A.D. 68. He is the sixth king; the short-lived rule of the seventh king
(Galba) "has not yet come."
In addition to all the foregoing, it would seem unreasonable to
exclude Julius from the list in light of the circumstances and subject
matter of the book. As will be shown in a later chapter – and as held
49. ANF 2:87.
50. Ibid., p. 120. T4eophilzu to Ar@cu.s 2:28.
51. Stuart, Apoca@e 24-48.
Th Identip of the Sixth King 159
by virtually all commentators – emperor worship does at the very
least make an appearance in Revelation. As a matter of historical
record, emperor worship began with Julius Caesar. To exclude him
from the enumeration of a list of pagan emperors in a work such as
Revelation would be highly questionable – especially when his name
was given to the line of the emperors: the Caesars.
Objections Considered
Let us at this point briefly consider some of the more significant
objections to the above construction of the evidence and the interpretation
of the passage presented.
Tb Designation of Emperors a "Kings"
Some might object to the approach outlined above in that the
emperors were not properly called "kings." Despite the formal validity
of such an objection, it is not a weighty argument. As a matter of
fact, it was not uncommon for the emperors to be referred to as
"kings." This is even done in Scripture itself. In 1 Peter 2:13, 17 and
1 Timothy 2:2 we must understand the references to kings as signi@-
ing even the Roman emperors. To overlook the emperors in these
commands would be a serious interpretive error. Surely the call to
obedience to and prayer for "kings" includes the ultimate source of
political rule in the first century, i.e., the emperor. In John 19:15 the
chief priests claimed before Pilate: "We have no king but Caesar. "
In Acts 17:7 Jason is accused of rebellion for receiving Christians into
his home, when it is said: '~ason has welcomed them, and they all
act contrary to the decrees of Caesar, saying that there is another
king, Jesus." Thus, the Bible itself clearly calls the emperors kings
elsewhere. This should control the matter.
Such a practice of calling emperors "kings" was not uncommon
in the first centuries.52 Julius Caesar tried to rid himself of the odium
that he aspired to be king by telling those who hailed him as king: "I
am Caesar and no king."53 The very fact, however, that commoners
did hail him as king is indicative of the popular perception. In
52. Stuart, Apoca~@e 2:325. Frederick W. Farrar,%Ear~ Days of Chri.rtiani& (New
York: Cassell, 1884), p. 413n, cites H. A. Ewald, Geschichti des Votkes Israel bti Christu.s, 3rd
cd., 7 vols. (Gottingen: 1864-1868), 6604ff. English translation by Russell Martineau
and J. E. Carpenter, 5 VOIS. (London: 1871 -1876).
53. Suetonius, Juliw 79.
160 BEFORE JERUSALEM FELL
Seneca's On Ckrneng, which was addressed to Nero, Nero is called
"rex:" "The Princeps should not only heal but leave no shameful scar;
no glory comes to a king from cruel punishment," and "You think it
hard that complete freedom of speech should be taken from kings."
Martial speaks of Nero as "the cruel king."w
The Roman emperors are called "kings" in the Sibylline Oracles.
In Sibylline Oracles Book 12 Augustus (12:25, 35), Gaius (12:57),
Domitian (12:137), Nerva (12:145), Trajan (12:147), Marcus Aurelius
(12: 188), Commodus (12:208), and Pertinax (12:236) are called
"kings."55 The pre-Eusebian work entitled The Acts o~tb M@ Apostle
and Evangelist John t/z Tbologian calls Domitian "king" a number of
times. In one alleged meeting of the Jews with him in this work, their
entreaty begins: "O Domitian, Caesar and king of all the world. . . ."
The work says of Trajan: "And when he was king over the Remans.
. . ."56 Sulpicius Severus speaks of Nero thus: "As to Nero,
I shall not say that he was the worst of kings, but that he was worthily
held the basest of all men, and even of wild beasts."57 Tb Histoy of
John the Son @ Zebedee speaks of Nero as a "wicked king."m In Tb
Giuing Up of Pontius Pilate, "Pilate" calls Tiberius Caesar "almighty
king."59
The evidence in this direction could be multiplied. This argument
against Revelation 17:10 applying to the line of the emperors
is wholly without merit.
Th Emperors of the Roman Ciuil War
Some scholars object to the inclusion of Galba, Otho, and Vitellius
on the grounds that: (1) Suetonius calls them a "rebellio trium
principum," and (2) their short claims to power (none over seven
months) would have been inconsequential to the far-flung provinces,
such as the Asian province to which John addressed Revelation.
Moffatt dismissed this trio as a "brief nightmare" in imperial his-
54. Martial, Book of Spectacles 2.
55. See also the following Sibylline Oracles: 4:119; 5:138, 221, 224, 233; &131-138;
11:286; 13:15.
56. See ANF 8:560, 562.
57. Sacred Hi.rtmy 2:28.
58. William Wright, Apoq@al Acts of tb Apdes, vol. 1 (Amsterdam: Philo, 1871
1968), p. 55.
59. See ANF 8:464.
The ldenti~ of tb Sixth King 161
tory.GO If these three are removed, then it is difficult to account for
the seventh emperor being one who rules only a "short while." For
if we begin with Julius and exclude Galba, Otho, and Vitellius, we
arrive at Vespasian as the seventh. Yet Vespasian ruled for 10 years
(A.D. 69-79), hardly a "short time."
To find the objectors citing Suetonius as evidence that the three
emperors of Rome's Civil War were not really considered emperors
is somewhat surprising. After all, Suetonius does include them in his
book Lives of the Twelve Caesars! Furthermore, these three are considered
emperors by Tacitus, Josephus, Sibylline Oracles, and 4 Ezra,
as well.G
As to their being inconsequential to far-flung provinces such as
Asia Minor, such is simply not the case. Certainly their policy
changes (such as there were) would have had little time to make even
a negligible impact on provincial affairs. But the fact of their warring
for the purple would most definitely be taken note of by the provinces.
And this is as true for the eastern provinces, as for other provinces.
Jerusalem and Judea certainly breathed a sigh of relief at these rapid
accessions. Josephus tells us that Vespasian halted his devastating
military operations against Israel while awaiting the outcome of the
Roman Civil War.G2 And as noted in an earlier portion of the present
study, Revelation has as a major focus God's judgment on the Jews.
We should not consider it "doubtfiul whether a writer living under
the Flavian Emperors would reckon Galba, Otho, or Vitellius among
the Augusti."G3 Indeed, the contortions through which H. B. Swete
(and others of like position on the line of the kings in Revelation 17)
must pass to arrive at a Domitianic date are almost evidence enough
to discredit his entire enterprise. Swete laboriously confronts the
problem in a way damaging to the unity of the book and antithetical
to its revelatory character: "How can the date which appears to be
assigned to this vision by the writer himself be reconciled with the
traditional date i.e., 95 of the Apocalypse? It may of course be that
the Apocalyptist incorporates at this point an older Christian prophecy,
or reedits his own earlier work. But it is equally possible that in
60. Moffatt, RsoeLztion, p. 318.
61. Tacitus, HiJ.kmies 1: lff.; 2: lQ Josephus, War$ OJ hJsws 49:2; Sibylline Oracles
5:35; and 4 Ezra 12:20ff.
62. Wars 49 and 411.
63. Swete, Revelation, p. 220.
162 BEFORE JERUSALEM FELL
the vision of the Woman and the Beast he purposely transfers himself
in thought to the time of Vespasian (d Efg brzv), interpreting past
events under the form of prophecy after the manner of apocalyptic
writers. "64
Tb Sjrnbolti Nature of Revelatwn
Some scholars doubt the utility of the Revelation 17 kings list in
dating the book in that Revelation is preeminently a symbolic book.
For instance, J. P. M. Sweet argues that "John's history, like his
geography and arithmetic, is spiritual (11:8); his hearers needed to
be told not who was rei~ing but his spiritual affiliations. The number
seven is symbolic – there were many more churcha than seven – though
it can refer to actual entities. John 'means to represent the Roman
power as a historic whole.' "65
The first and most obvious problem with such a statement is the
fatal admission he makes: "though it can refer to actual entities."
That being the case, the question arises: why not here? Beyond that
we should consider that the Christians of the era would think it
important to know not only the "spiritual affiliations" of the reigning
king, but also his identity – not the connotation only of the "king,"
but also his denotation. Thir lives were literal~ on the line. Why would
they not need to know? What is so incredible with knowing the
identity of one's enemies when promised the information? Besides,
the very passage in question is, as we have stated above, an explication
of the symbolism that purports to eluciahte the matter (Rev. 17:7).
Whereas in the illustrative verse alluded to by Sweet (i.e., Rev. 11:8),
John clearly says the designation is "spiritual." After John gives the
spiritual reference, even there he provides a clear, indisputable historical
geographic reference: The city that is spiritually called "Sodom
and Egypt" is "where also their Lord was crucified."
All agree that the book makes a symbolic use of numbers. But
we must understand that it is the sovereign God of heaven and earth
who makes that usage. Is it necessarily impossible to find a direct
correspondence between the symbolic numbers and historic reality?
After all, both spiritual symbolism and historical-geographical reality
proceed forth from the same source: the One seated above the chaos
64. Ibid., p. 221.
65. Sweet, Revelation, p. 257. Cp. Beckwith, Afioca~@e, p. 704-708.
The Zci2n.ti~ of t/w Sixth King 163
in sublime control, Almighty God (Rev. 4). As a matter of fact, the
seven churches in Revelation were historical churches in historical
Asia. As a matter of historical fact, Rome was the persecutor of the
Church, and it was located on sewn hills. Is it not quite remarkable
that Nero was, in reality, the sixth emperor and he was, in reality,
followed by a seventh who reigned only a "short time"? If the Neronic
date be accepted, the enumeration of the "kings" covers all of imperial
history up until John's tirru and the events "shortly" to follow.
Surely the large, rounded numbers of Revelation – e.g., 1000, 144,000,
and 200,000,000 – should be understood as symbols, but it is not at
all clear that the smaller numbers or shorter time-frames must be so
understood (especially in light of the previous considerations).
Furthermore, it could well be that John did mean "to represent
the Roman power as a historic whole." But this is the very point: if
John wrote before A.D. 68 he was writing about the whole of the
Roman power! For then it would be the case that in John's day only
six emperors had ascended the imperial throne.
But why only seven kings? First because the number seven is the
reigning symbolic number of the book; then, secondly, because this
covers the ground which the writer means specially to occupy, viz., it
goes down to the period when the persecution then raging would
cease.66
Finally, despite the symbolic nature of apocalyptic non-biblical
literature in general – often an extravagant and excessive symbolism
— apocalyptic political referents were almost invariably of a chronological-
historical nature. In the Sibylline Oracles and 2 Esdras this
is undeniably the case. Why should it not be so here?
The "Kings" as Kingdoms
Other commentators object that the proper interpretation of the
matter would involve not a series of seven kings, but of seven kingdoms.
One commentator interprets the symbol as indicating: "seven different
manifestations of the world-power in history. As we have remarked,
the picture of the beast in our text places before us the
historic development of the world-power, as well as its final formation.
And the former is symbolized in the heads. That this is the case
66. Stuart, Apoca@e 2:32.5, 326.
*
164 BEFORE JERUSALEM FELL
is plain from the language of the angels. He tells us about these heads
that one is, that five have fallen, and that one is not yet, evidently
pointing to succession."G7 Another argues similarly: "The seven heads
are best explained as referring to seven kings who represent seven
successive forms of the kingdom. "w
Various problems beset the view that the "kings" represent "kingdoms,"
rendering it unfit as an adequate interpretive option. First,
the word given to help John understand the vision is "kings" (J3cmz-
~Efg). This word never means "kingdom." Second, as noted above,
the obvious allusion to Rome via the "seven hills" cannot be mistaken.
To allow it to refer to something other than Rome would be a
cruel taunting of the original audience. Especially would this be so
since the angel declared that he was assisting in the interpretation!
Third, as noted in a earlier section of the present study, the expectation
of the book is that of the events being "at hand" and "near"
(Rev. 1:1,3, 19; 3:10; 6:10; 22:6, 10,12, 20).
Conclusion
Revelation 17 points specifically to the present rule of a sixth
"king" in a succession of seven that rule from seven hills. In light of
the various considerations outlined above, it is obvious that a convincing
case can be made for a date sometime during the reign of
Nero, particularly in the latter years of his reign. Although this does
not speci~ the exact year of dating, it does clearly obviate a late date
for Revelation. And when this extremely strong piece of evidence is
combined with all that given heretofore and with the yet-to-come
internal evidence, the early date position approaches certainty.
67. Hoeksema, Behald, He Ccmuth, pp. .572, 573.
68. Walvoord, Reuelatiotq p. 250. See also Ladd, Rer.wktion, p. 229. It is a frequent
source of frustration that despite loud calls for a hermeneutic of "consistent liberalism"
by dispensational premillennialist, such a denial of this historically verifiable referent is
urged by them. For calls to liberalism in Revelation, see Walvoord, Revelation, p. 21; and
Charles C. Ryrie, ?% Living End (Old Tappan, NJ: Revell, 1976), p. 37.
11
THE CONTEMPOIURY
INTEGRITY OF THE TEMPLE
Another noteworthy historical datum in Revelation is found in
Revelation 11 where we discover a reference to the Temple. Verses
1 and 2 of Revelation 11 contain the relevant temporal indicators:
And there was given me a measuring rod like a stat and someone
said, "Rise and measure the temple of God, and the altar, and those
who worship in it. And leave out the court which is outside the
temple, and do not measure it, for it has been given to the nations;
and they will tread under fmt the holy city for forty-two months."
The Significance of Revelation 11
A good number of competent scholars have long recognized the
significance of this passage for the interpretation and the dating of
the book. Bleek notes the existence of the Temple as a significant
indicator "with tolerable clearness" of Revelation's historical era: "As
to the time ofun-iting, there are several statements which indicate this
with tolerable clearness, and to which we have already referred. In
the first division (ch. xi. 1-14) . . . Jerusalem and the temple are
spoken of as still standing." 1 Dusterdieck writes with deep conviction
regarding Revelation 11:1 ff.: "It is sufficient for chronological interest,
that prophecy depends upon the presupposition that the destruction
of thz Holy City had not yet occurred. This is derived with the greatest
evidence from the text, since it is said, ver. 2, that the Holy City, i.e.,
Jerusalem, is to be trodden down by the Gentiles. . . . This testimony
of the Apoc., which is completely indisputable to an unpreju-
1. Johannes Friedrich Bleek, An Introduction to tlw Nsw Tatamsnt, 2 vols., 2nd cd.,
trans. William Urwick (Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark, 1870) 2:226.
165
166 BEFORE JERUSALEM FELL
diced mind, can still be misunderstood only with great difficulty."2
Weiss concurs: "The time of the Apocalypse is also definitely fixed
by the fact that according to the prophecy in chap. xi. it was manifestly
written before the destruction of Jerusalem, which in xi. 1 is
only anticipated."3 Writing at about the same time, Macdonald
expresses a similarly strong conviction: "It is difficult to see how
language could more clearly point to Jerusalem, and to Jerusalem as
it was before its overthrow."4
More recently we can note that Torrey depends upon the usefulness
of this passage for the dating of the book: "A most important
passage, truly decisive in view of all the other evidence, is the beginning
(the first two verses) of chapter 11. . . . This was written before
the year 70, as all students of the book agree."5 Even more recently
still, Robinson has written of this critical passage: "It is indeed
generally agreed that this passage must bespeak a pre-70 situation.
. . . There seems therefore no reason why the oracle should
not have been uttered by a Christian prophet as the doom of the city
drew nigh."G Robinson, indeed, regards the whole matter of the
destruction of the Temple as a critical issue for the dating of the entire
New Testament. Two excerpts from his important work will illustrate
his (correct, we believe) view regarding the significance of the destruction
of the Temple for New Testament studies:
It was at this point that I began to ask myself just why any of the books
of the New Testament needed to be put after the fall of Jerusalem in
70. As one began to look at them, and in particular the epistle to the
Hebrews, Acts and the Apocalypse, was it not strange that this
cataclysmic event was never once mentioned or apparently hinted at
i.e., as a past fact – KLG?7
2. I+ieclrich Diisterdieck, Critical and E.egetzcal Handbook to the Revelation of John, 3rd
cd., trans. Henry E. Jacobs (New York: Funk and Wagnalls, 1886), pp. 46-47.
3. Bernhard Weiss, A Manual of Introduction to the New i%tanwnt, trans. A. J. K.
Davidson, 2 vols. (New York: Funk and Wagnalls, 1889) 2:82.
4. James M. Macdonald, i% L@ and Writings of St John (London: Hodder &
Stoughton, 1877), p. 159.
5. Charles C. Torrey, T/u Apoca~pse of John (New Haven: Yale, 1958), p. 87. It is
lamentable that Torrey, speaking as a liberal, overstates his case when he avers that "all
students of the book agree" that this passage "was written before the year 70. "
6. John A. T. Robinson, Redatixg the Ntw Testanwrzt (Philadelphia Westminster,
1976), pp. 240-242.
7. Robinson, Redating, p. 10.
Th Contempora~ Integrity of th Temple 167
One of the oddest facts about the New Testament is that what on any
showing would appear to be the single most datable and climactic
event of the period — the fall of Jerusalem in A.D. 70 — is never once
mentioned as a past fact. . . . The silence is nevertheless as significant
as the silence for Sherlock Holmes of the dog that did not bark.8
The clarity of the historical inference from Revelation 11:1, 2 is
so strong that this passage has played prominently – even if
wrongly – in the various higher critical fragment hypotheses. Moffatt,
for instance, views this section as a pre-A.D. 70 Jewish fragment,
and claims that this is "widely recognised by critics and editors. "g
Apparently Wellhausen was the first to propose this view.l" Charles
writes in this regard: "Our author has used sources, and several of
these were written under Nero, or at all events before the fall of
Jerusalem. . . . Hence such statements as clearly suppose a Neronic
date (i.e., in 11:1-13; 12 (?); 13:1-7, 10) are simply survivals in the
sources used by our author. " 1' Later, in his actual commentary on
the passage, he notes in true higher critical form: "xi. i-13 consists
of two independent fragments, both written before 70 A.D. . . . It
is a j$-agment that bore akfmite~ on its fie tlw date of 70 A.D. when
Jerusalem still stood."12
The composite theory will not work, however. The book of
Revelation is no conflation of sources. Yale's C. C. Torrey (no
conservative theologian by any stretch of the imagination) puts it
well when he writes:
There are indeed very obvious reasons why the Apocalypse should
now seem to call for drastic alteration, for it cannot be made to fit the
present scheme of New Testament dogma. If the Church in its beginnings
was mainly Gentile and opposed to Judaism, this Book of
Revelation can hardly be understood. It is very plainly a mixture of
Jewish and Christian elements, and the hope of effecting a separation
of the two naturally suggests itself It is, however, a perfectly futile
dream, as the many attempts have abundantly shown. Every chapter
in the book is both Jewish and Christian, and only by very arbitrary
8. Ibid., p. 13.
9. James Moffatt, The Revelation of St. John tk Dwine, in W. R. Nicd, cd., Englishman's
Greek Testament, vol. 5 (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, rep. 1980), pp. 287ff., 414, cp. 281-295.
10. R. H. Charles, The Revelation ofSt. John, 2 vols. International Critical Commentary
(Edinburgh: T. &T. Clark, 1920) 1:274.
11. Ibid., 1 :xciii-xcix.
12. Ibid. 1:270, 271.
168 BEFORE JERUSALEM FELL
proceedings can signs of literary composition be formed. The trouble
is not with the book, but with the prevailing theory of Christian
origins.'3
In another place he comments that "the book is a unity, in no sense
composite. Detailed proos quite unanswerable, will be found in H.
B. Swete's A$oca@se ~St. John (1906)."14
Moffatt surveys a number of the leading exponents of the fmgment
hypothesis who use these two verses (among others) as evidence
for their theories. These scholars argue that Revelation 11:1, 2 was
written prior to the Temple's destruction and were later incorporated
editorially by a Christian editor into Revelation. Besides himsel~ he
lists the following names: Weyland, F. Spitta, Pfleiderer, J. Weiss,
C. von Weizsacker, Schon, W. Bousset, A. C. M'Giffert, A. Meyer,
Abbott, Baljon, Wiede, P. W. Schmiedel, Calmes, C. A. Briggs,
Erbes, F. Barth, Bruston, K. L. Schmidt, Eugene de Faye, Volter,
O. Holtzmann, Vischer, A. von Harnack, Martineau, Von Soden,
and C. Rausch.'5 More recently Kummel cites such names as I. T.
Beckwith, A. H. McNeile, C. S. William, H. Windisch, S. Giet, M.
Rissi, de Zwaan, and M. Goguel. 'G From a conservative perspective,
which is committed to the inspirational and revelatory character of
Scripture, the higher critical theories created by these men are deemed
woefully ill-conceived in that they operate on anti-supernaturalistic
principles. Nevertheless, the scholars who create them are working
upon real and valid evidence, even though they misconstrue the
nature and function of that historical evidence. We wholeheartedly
concur with Adams's assessment that the fact that the Temple was
standing when Revelation was written is "unmistakable proof that
Revelation was written before 70 A.D."17
Let us then turn to a careful consideration of the passage before
us in order to determine its significance for a pre-A.D. 70 dating for
Revelation. It should be remembered fi-om the introductory state-
13. Charles C. Torrey, Docwrwah oft/u l%nitiue Church (New York Harper, 1941), p.
77.
14. Ibid., p. 149.
15. Moffatt, Revelation, pp. 287, 292-293.
16. Werner Georg Kummel, Introductim to h New Tw!unwnt, 17th cd., trans. Howard
C. Kee, (Nashville Abingdon, 1973), pp. 463-464.
17. Jay E. Adams, The Tirw Z~ at Hand (Phillipsburg, NJ: Presbyterian and Reformedj
1966), p. 68.
The Conte-mPora~ lntegri~ of the Temple 169
ments at the outset of this study that the present writer regards the
Revelation as unified, inspired, canonical Scripture. Thus, the patchwork
approach of the multitudinous higher critical theories — i.e.
theories of compilation, revision, and incorporation – will not be
considered, in that such imply the non-inspirational quality of Revelation
as we now possess it. Other works can be consulted to deal
with this important question of critical introduction. 18
The Identity of the Temple
The first and most important question to consider for the present
purpose is that of the identity of this Temple with its outer courts.
Do these stand as purely symbolic representations of the Church (as
per Milligan, Caird, Mounce,19 and many others) ? Or is there embodied
here a reference to the earthly Temple of Herod that existed
during Jesus' day (as per Stuart, Terry, Charles, Robinson,*" and
others) ? Let us consider the evidences for its referent speci~ng the
literal Herodian Temple of Jesus' day. After this we will survey the
contrary arguments that are deemed supportive of a symbolic representation.
Th Location of the Tmple
In the first place, the Temple, altar, and court are said to be
located in "the holy city" that is to be trodden under foot. This "holy
city" reference seems a clear enough allusion to Jerusalem that was
18. See especially Henry Barclay Swete, Comnuntmy on Revelatiwz (Grand Rapids:
Kregel, 1906 1977), pp. xlvi f.; and Donald Guthrie, New Tatammt Intma%ction, 3rd ed.
(Downess Grove, IL: Inter-Varsity Press, 1970), pp. 964-969. The vast and conflicting
mass of fragmentary hypotheses renders the whole enterprise suspect to the candid mind.
Furthermore, that John (or the alleged tinal Christian editor) would incorporate an
oracle of a Jewish zealot spoken during Titus's siege of A.D. 70 (as per Wellhausen,
Charles, et. al.) in a work finally edited in the A.D. 90s is, as Caird has said, "improbable,
useless, and absurd." Why would John the Edhor employ such a prediction 25 or more
years after the falsi$ing of the prophecy? G. B. Caird, A Comnwntury on tlu Revelation of St.
John ths Divine (New York Harper& Row, 1966), p. 131.
19. William Milligan, Dzkwtim.s on the Apocu@e (London Macmillan, 1893), pp.
95fE "The whole deacnption is clearly figurative." Caird, Revelation, p. 132. Robert H.
Mounce, The Book of Revelation. New International Commentary on the New Testament
(Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1977), p. 35.
20. Moses Stuart, Cnrsment$zV on ttu A@ca~@e, 2 vols. (Andove~ Allen, Merrill, and
Wardwell, 1845) 1:213fE; Milton S. Terry, Biblical Hermerwutics (Grand Rapids Zondervan,
rep. 1974), pp. 473ff.; Charles, Revelation 1 :26!M; Robinson, Redating, pp. 238ff.
170 BEFORE JERUSAI.EM 1111.1,
often called the "holy city" in both the Old Testament (e.g., Isa. 48:2;
52:1; Neh. 11: 1-18)21 and the New Testament (Matt. 4:5; 27:53), as
well as in non-canonical, Jewish literature ( 1 Mace. 2:7; 2 Mace.
1:12; 3:1; 9:14; 15:14; Tob. 13:10; Sir. 36:12; 49:6; Psa. Sol. 8:4).
What other city besides Jerusalem ever had a just claim to such a
designation in Scripture? It was historically known as the "city of
God" (Psa. 46:4; 48:1, 8; 87:3), ~my holy mountain" (Isa. 11:9; 56:7;
57:13:65:11, 25), the "city of the Great King" (Psa. 48:2; Matt. 5:35),
and other such sacred and intimate designations by God in Scripture.
Coins minted during the .Jewish War of A.D. 67-70 bore the legend
~ Vn~ D~~17~, or ~tin~~, Jerusalem the Holy.** Furthermore,
what should be a blatantly obvious contextual clue specifically designates
the city as the place "where also their Lord was crucified" (Rev.
11:8): "And their dead bodies will lie in the street of the great city
which mystically is called Sodom and Egypt, where also their Lord
was crucified." This modi$ing clause ("where also their Lord was
crucified") seems to be given to insure the proper identifying of the
city that is referred to mystically as "Sodom and Egypt" (v. 8).23 The
greatest crime of all history was perpetrated at Jerusalem, for "the
Lord of glory" who "came unto His own" was crucified there (Matt.
16:21; Mark 8:31; 10:32-34; Luke 9:22; 13:32; 17: 11; 19:28). Through
spiritual metamorphosis the once "holy city" has been transformed
into an unholy "Egypt" and "Sodom." The symbolic references are:
"Egypt" and "Sodom." The literal, geographical referent here is not
another symbol, but the historical city Jerusalem.24
Again, the theme of the book should be recalled at this juncture.
Revelation was written to warn that "those who pierced Him" (the
Jews of the first century) would see His cloud-judgment coming upon
them. Hence, the si~ificance of Jerusalem in this passage as the
place where the Lord was crucified.
21. See also the pseudepigraphical Psalms ofSolmrron 8:4.
22. George Adam Smith, Jerusalem: T/u Topography, Ecorwrntis and Histav >orn &
Earlust Tin-w to A.D. 70, vol. 1 (London: Hedder & Stoughton, 1907), p. 270.
23. Cp. Is. 1:9-10 and Eze. 16:46-49 for CMd Testament denunciations of Jerusalem
as "Sodom. "
24. In addition, the mention of the streets in Rev. 11:8 and the deaths of 7000 people
by earthquake further preclude the designation from being applied to a "secularized
church." See Hermann Gebhardt, ?7ze Doctn"ru of h Apocalypse, trans. John Jefferson
(Edinburgh: T.& T. Clark, 1878), pp. 1 IK
The Contemporary Integtip of the Temple 171
Some maintain that the phrase "the great city" (Rev. 11 :8)
indicates Rome. That the city is thus designated, however, should
pose no hindrance to accepting the referent as indicating historic
Jerusalem. Such an appellation should not excite wonder among
those who are aware of either the covenantal-redemptive significance
ofJerusalem, or its historical fame.
Historically even pagan historians and writers speak of its mag- '
nificence. The Roman historian Tacitus prefaces his history of its
destruction by Vespasian and Titus with words quite compatible
with such a designation as in Revelation 11:8: "However, as I am
about to describe the last days of a famous city, it seems proper for
me to give some account of its origin. "25 Jerusalem housed a Temple
that, according to Tacitus "was famous beyond all other works of
men."2G Another Roman historian, Pliny, said of Jerusalem that it
was "by far the most famous city of the ancient Orient. "27 According
to Josephus a certain Agatharchides spoke ofJerusalem thus: "There
are a people called Jews, who dwell in a city the strongest of all other
cities, which the inhabitants call Jerusalem. "28 Appian called it "the
great city Jerusalem.>'*g Truly, then, Jerusalem was "one of the most
famous cities of the civilized world" at that time.30
More important, however, is the covenantal significance ofJerusalem.
The obvious role of Jerusalem in the history of the covenant
should merit it such greatness.3' The intense Jewish love of Jerusalem
pictured it as of great stature among the famous cities of the nations.
In the Fifti Book of the Sibylline Oracles, we have a Jewish oracle
25. Histories 5:2.
26. Fragments @the Historses 2.
27. Natural Histoy .5:1470.
28. Againd AjnoYI 1:197.
29. The SF"an Wars 50.
30. David Ben-Gurion, Z%e Jews m T&r Land, trans. Mordechai Nurock and Misha
Louvish (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1966), p. 152.
31. Smith writes of the well-known tendency to call Jerusalem "Sion": "Sion is become
the full equivalent of Jerusalem Zech. 1:114, 17; 8:3; Zeph. 3:16. . ." He then notes
that "the name is as closely attached to the Lord as to His people. Sion is Sion of the
Holy One of Israel Isa. 50:14, His Holy Mount ~oel 2:1, 15, and dwelling place ~oel
3:17, the nation herself Zeph. 3:14; the pure and holy nucleus of the nation Isa.
59:20" (Smith, Jerusalem 1:149- 150). Clearly then, Jerusalem/Sion was of covenantd
greatness to the Jew and to those who entered her covenantal stream of history.
172 BEFORE JERUSALEM FELL
written (apparently) from Egypt in the 90s.32 In this oracle Jerusalem
is spoken of thus:
He seized the divinely built Temple and burned the citizens and
peoples who went into it, men whom I rightly praised.
For on his appearance the whole creation was shaken and kings
perished, and those in whom sovereignty remained destroyed a great
c-@ and righteous people. . . .33
For murder and terrors are in store for all men because of th great
ci~ and righteous people which is preserved throughout everything
which Providence held in special place. . . .34
But now a certain insignificant and impious king has gone up, cast it
down, and left it in ruins with a great horde and illustrious men. He
himself perished at immortal hands when he left the land, and no
such sign has yet been pefiormed among men that others should think
to sack a great ti@35
Josephus sadly extols Jerusalem's lost glory after its destruction:
This was the end which Jerusalem came to by the madness of those
that were for innovations; a city otherwise of great magnificence, and
of mighty fame among aJl mankind.3G
And where is not that great ti~, the metropolis of the Jewish nation,
which was fortified by so many walls round about, which had so
many fortresses and large towers to defend it, which could hardly
contain the instruments prepared for the war, and which had so many
ten thousands of men to fight for it? Where is this city that was
believed to have God himself inhabiting therein? It is now demolished
to the very foundations.37
He also records John of Gischala's retort to Titus's call (through the
captured Josephus) for the surrender of the city; John refused to
surrender Jerusalem because "it was God's own city."38
Edersheim reminds us that "'Ten measures of beauty,' say the
32. Collins, "Sibylline Oracles," OTP 1:390.
33. Sibylbu Orarles 5: 150-15+ OTP 1:396. Emphasis mine.
34. Sibyllim Orarles 5:225-227; OTP 1:398. Emphasis mine.
35. Sibyllitu Oracles 5:408-413; OTP 1:403. Emphasis mine.
36. The Wars of theJsws 7:1:1.
37. Wars 7:8:7. Emphasis mine.
38. Wars 6:2:1.
Th ContemPora~ Integrip of the Temple 173
Rabbis, 'bath God bestowed upon the world, and nine of these fall
to the lot of Jerusalem' – and again, 'A city, the fame of which has
gone out from one end of the world to the other.' 'Thine, O Lord, is
the greatness, the power, the glory, and eternity.' This – explains the
Talmud – 'Is Jerusalem.' In opposition to her rival Alexandria, which
was designated 'the little,' Jerusalem was called 'the great.' "39
By the time of the Exile Jerusalem had come to be known among her
people as The Ci@ in distinction from The Lan~40 and this is usual also
in the Mishna. It is significant of the growth of her importance both
material and spiritual, and of the absence of other cities in the rest of
the now much diminished territory. Townships there were, and not a
few fenced ones; but Jerusalem stood supreme and alone as The
City.41
The most natural interpretation of Revelation 11, then, would
suggest that the references to the cultic structures have behind them
the literal Temple complex, for only Revelation clearly refers to
Jerusalem. Even recognizing that the part of the Temple complex to
be preserved has a spiritual referent,42 how could John be commanded
to symbolically measure what did not exist with the idea of
preserving (in some sense) a part and destroying the rest? Why would
there be no reference to its being already destroyed in such a work
as this, a work that treats of judgment upon Judaism? When he
originally held to a late date for Revelation, Robinson asked himself
"Was it not strange that this cataclysmic event was never once
mentioned or apparently hinted at"43 in the books of the New Testament,
particularly in Revelation and Hebrews? Moule came to have
the same concern.w Where is there any reference to the rebuilding
of the Temple in Revelation so that it could be again destroyed (as
per the dispensationalist argument) ? Such a suppressed premise is
essential to the futurist argument. If there is no reference to a
rebuilding of the Temple and the book was written about A.D. 95,
39. Alfred Edersheim, Sketche$ of J~ish Social Lz~e (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, rep.
1975), p. 82.
40, Eze. 7:23; Jer. 32:24fi Psa. 72:16 Isa. 46:6.
41. Smith, Jerusalem, 1:269.
42. See below.
43. Robinson, Redating, p. 10.
44. C. D. F. Moule, 77ze Bwth @_ the New ZWzment (3rd cd.: New York: Harper &
ROW, 1982), p. 175.
174 BEFORE JERUSALEM FELL
how could the readers make sense of its prophecies?
The Measuring of the Temple
In the second place, the measuring of the Temple is for the
preservation of its innermost aspects, i.e., the vadq altar, and worshipers
within (Rev. 11: 1). This seems to refer to the inner-spiritual idea
of the Temple in the New Covenant era that supersedes the material
Temple of the Old Covenant era. Thus, while judgment is about to
be brought upon Israel, Jerusalem, and the literal Temple complex,
this prophecy speaks also of the preservation of God's new Temple,
the Church (Eph. 2: 19ff.; 1 Cor. 3:16; 6:19; 2 Cor. 6:16; 1 Pet. 2:5ff.)
that had its birth in and was originally headquartered at Jerusalem
(Luke 24:47; Acts 1:8; 8:1; 15:2). Notice that after the holocaust, the
altar is seen in heaven (Rev. 11:18), whence Christ's kingdom originates
('John 18:36; Heb. 1:3) and where Christians have their citizenship
(Eph. 2:6; Col. 3:1, 2).
The external court of the Temple complex, however, is not
"measured"; it is "cast out" (3Kf?cdE). All the Israelites who refhse
the new priesthood of baptism are cast out and their Temple destroyed.
The Temple is not destined for presemation, "for it has been
given to the nations; and they will tread under foot the holy city for
forty-two months" (v. 2). The prior prophecy of Christ (Matt. 24:2)
absolutely prohibits any expectation of even a partial preservation of
the literal Temple. Thus, John reveals both the prophetic certainty
of the material Temple's destruction and the fact of the preservation
of His true Temple, His Church, His New Covenant people, His new
priesthood. 45 The proper understanding of the passage requires a
mixture of the figurative-symbolic and the literal-historical. This is
true in every interpretive approach to the passage, even the attempted
literalistic hermeneutic ofdispensationalism. Walvoord writes
that "the guiding lines which govern the exposition to follow regard
this chapter as a legitimate prophetic utterance in which the terms
are taken normally. Hence, the great city of 11:8 is identified as the
literal city of Jerusalem."w But Walvoord is conspicuously silent on
the matter of John's literally climbing the walls of the Temple with
45. As such, Rev. 11:1, 2 functions in the same way as the "sealing of the 144,000"
passage in Rev. 7.
46. John F. Wahmord, The Revelation ofJesw Chrirt (Chicago: Moody, 1966), p. 175.
The Con.temporay lntegri~ of the Temple 175
rod in hand and his gathering the worshipers together to measure
them. Even fellow premillennialist Mounce notes: "The measuring
of the temple is a symbolic way of declaring its preservation."47 It
seems quite apparent that the symbolic mixture involves a contrast
between that which is outer and external to the worship of God (i.e.,
"the court which is outside the Temple" and Jerusalem, v. 2) and
that which is internal and essential to the worship of God (i.e., the
vcY6g the Temple proper, the altar and the worshipers: the Church).
The mixture of figurative and literal is neither unprecedented nor
uncommon in Scripture (e.g., 2 Kgs. 21:12, 13; Amos 7:8, 9; Isa.
34:1 1; Lam. 2:8; Rev. 18:9-10).
Furthermore, although it is recognized on all sides that there is
an obvious involvement of the symbolic in the passage (e.g., the
measuring of the va6q or the innermost portion of the Temple: the
Temple proper, Rev. 11: 1), there surely must be some reality that
forms the basis of the symbol. After all, the symbolic names "Egypt"
and "Sodom" refer to the historical city Jerusalem (Rev. 11:8). If
John wrote about literal Jerusalem ("where also their Lord was
crucified" ) twenty-five years after the destruction of the literal Temple
(as per the evangelically formulated late date argument), it would
seem most improbable that he would speak of the Temple as if it
were still standing. The symbol would be confusing in its blatant
anachronism. The Temple is required to be standing for the symbolical
action of the vision to have any meaning. John uses the future
tense when he speaks of the nations' treading down the city. As just
stated, this is not a reminiscence of a past event, but rather a future
expectation.
All of this becomes all the more apparent when the theme of the
book is recalled: Christ is judging Israel for the sin of rejecting Him.
Christ-rejecting, Church-persecuting Israel is to be humbled and
destroyed. Revelation 11:1, 2 clearly corresponds to the prophecy of
Christ as recorded in Luke 21:24. That prophecy (like its parallels
in Matt. 24 and Mark 13) is widely held to refer to the destruction
of the Temple in A.D. 70. It is the Lucan record of the Olivet
Discourse that specifically speaks of the dismantling of the Temple
by terms reflective of those in Revelation 11.
In Luke 21:24 we read: "and they will fall by the edge of the
47. Mounce, Revelation, p. 219.
176 BEFORE JERUSALEM FELL
sword, and will be led captive into all the nations; and Jeru.ralem will
be trampled underfoot by tb Gentiles until the times of the Gentiles be
fulfilled." Revelation 11 :2b reads: "it i.e., the holy city, Rev. 11:1
has been given to the nationq and they will tread under>ot the fw~ tip
for forty-two months." Here the correspondences are so strong, they
bespeak historical identity rather than mere accidental similarity:
Luke 21:24 / Revelation 11:2
Gentiles (~evfiv) = nations (g@dEv)
trampled underfoot (~a~ov@vq) = tread under foot (nanjooucnv)
It is evident that John's Revelation and Luke's Gospel look to the
same events. And these events were literal occurrences that happened
to historical institutions and structures, and that had not already
occurred, but that lay in the future for both Jesus (whose words Luke
records) and John (in Revelation). The context of Luke demands a
literal Jerusalem (Luke 21 :20) besieged by literal armies (Luke21 :20)
in literal Judea (Luke 21:21) – which as a matter of indisputable
historical record occurred in the events leading up to A.D. 70.
Objections to the Thesis
Despite the above observations, it is frequently argued by many
that the Revelation 11 indication of the Temple's existence does not
demand a pre-A.D. 70 date. And this for several reasons.
77w Objection>orn Ck-ment of Ronw
Both Guthrie and Mounce,4 for example, argue that Clement of
Rome spoke of the Temple as still standing, even though he wrote
around A.D. 90+. Clement's relevant statement is as follows: "Let
each of you, brethren, in his own order give thanks unto God,
maintaining a good conscience and not transgressing the appointed
rule of his service, but acting with all seemliness. Not in every place,
brethren, are the continual daily sacrifices offered, or the freewill
offerings, or the sin offerings and the trespass offerings, but in Jerusalem
alone. And even there the offering is not made in every place,
but before the sanctuary in the court of the alta.q and this too through
the high-priest and the aforesaid ministers, after that the victim to
48. Guthrie, Introdutwn, p. 960; Mounce, Revelation, p. 35.
The Contempora~ Integri~ of the Temple 177
be offered bath been inspected for blemishes."49
This language in 1 Clement, however, opens the whole question
of the actual date of 1 Clement itself. Unfortunately, there is almost
as serious a question over the dating of Clement's letter as there is
over the dating of Revelation.50 Coxe, who himself opts for an A.D.
97 date for the letter, is quite cautious: "I have reluctantly adopted
the opinion that his Epistle was written near the close of his life, and
not just after the persecution of Nero."51 Though Lightfoot accepts
the late date of 1 Clement, he recognizes some unusual factors of the
letter (which we will consider below) that are quite curious if the
letter is to be dated late.52 Three noteworthy scholars who have opted
for an early (A.D. 70) date for Clement are: historians Arthur S.
Barnes53 and George Edmundson,54 and theologian John A. T. Robinson.
55 Robinson observes in this regard: "Yet in fact its late date
basis is a great deal weaker than it appears and the case against it
has been powefiully stated by Edmundson, whose book seems to
have been ignored at this point as at others. . . . The sole question
is whether he wrote it when he was bishop or at an earlier stage.
Edmundson argues strongly that the evidence points to the latter
alternative. "56
Let us now look at the leading early date evidences for 1 Clement.
If the evidence is compelling, then Clement would be removed as an
obstacle to regarding the Temple reference in Revelation as indicating
a pre-A.D. 70 date. If it is less than persuasive, however, yet the
argument will have served a purpose in at least diminishing the
49. 1 Clement 41.
50. It seems that though the preponderance of scholarly authority sides for the A.D,
90+ date for 1 Ck-md, Guthrie (followed by Mounce, Rewlatzon, p. 35) may have
overstated the matter when he wrote: "Moreover, Clement of Rome also refers to the
temple in the present tense and no-one would suppose because of this that his writing
must be dated before A.D. 70," Zntroductwn, p. 960. "No-one"?
51. A. Cleveland Coxe, in Alexander Roberts and James Donaldson, eds., The Ante-
Nicene Fathers ANF, 10 vols. (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, late 19th c. 1975) 1:1.
52. J. B. Light foot, Ttu Apastolic Fathers, Part Z: S. (Wrrwnt of Ronu (London: Macmillan,
1889), p. 352.
53. Arthur S. Barnes, Christian@ at Rorru in the Apostolti Age ( Westport, CT Greenwood,
1938 1971), pp. 209K.
54. George Edmundson, l% Church m Rome in the First Century (London: Longman's,
Green, 1913), pp. 189fI
55. Robinson, Redating, p. 328.
56. Ibsd.
178 BEFORE JERUSALEM FELL
effectiveness of the reference to 1 Clement 41 as a tool for undermining
the establishment of the above Temple argument in Revelation.
The first line of evidence regards an ex sihztio matter. If the letter
were written after A.D. 90 – when Clement was appointed the bishop
of Rome – then an unusual ecclesiastical silence in the letter must
be accounted for.
Even the very existence of a bishop of Rome itself could nowhere be
gathered from this letter. Authority indeed is claimed for the utterances
of the letter in no fidtering tone, but it is the authority of the
brotherhood declaring the mind of Christ by the Spirit, not the
authority of one man, whether bishop or pope.57
Robinson is persuaded by the silence: "At no point in the epistle is
appeal made to episcopal authority. . . . Not only is the author not
writing as a bishop, but the oflice of bishop is still apparently synonymous
with that of presbyter (42.4f; 44.1, 4f.; 54.2; 57.1), as in the
New Testament and all the other writings we have examined. . . .
If this is really the state of affairs in Rome in 96, then we are faced
with a very remarkable transition within less than 20 years to that
presupposed by the epistles of Ignatius. . . . It is easier to believe
that 1 Clement, like the Shepherd of Hermas, reflects an earlier
period."58 The point is well-taken. The evidence, such as it is, is
more suggestive of a pre-bishopric era than for a later era.
Second, it would seem that in Clement's letter the internal evidence
is suggestive of a more primitive Christian era.
In the organisation of the Church only 'bishops and deacons' are
mentioned, exactly as they are in St. Paul's Epistle to the Philippians,
while the title 'bishop' is to the same extent interchangeable with that
of 'presbyter' as it is in the Acts and Pauline epistles, and the word
'rulers' has the same sense as in the Epistle to the Hebrews.59
We can also note reference to Christ as the "child of God," the
primitive form of Scripture quotations, the reference to the phoenix
(which had been exhibited in Rome under Claudius), and other such
matters, all of which lend themselves to the earlier period more
57. Lightfbot, Apostolic Fathm, Part I, p. 352.
58. Robinson, Redating, p. 328.
59. Edmundson, Church in Rem, p. 192.
T4.e Contempora~ Integrigv of the Temple 179
readily.GO Barnes added to these the reference to one Fortunatus (a
friend of Paul in 54, cf. 1 Cor. 16:17), the selection of Claudis and
Valerius (who were of the household of Claudius the Emperor,
according to Lightioot) as messengers, and other such indications .61
Third, in 1 Clement 5:1 we read: "But to pass from the examples
of ancient days, let us come to those champions who lived nearest
our times. Let us set before us the noble examples which belong to
our generation. By reason of jealously and envy the greatest and
most righteous pillars of the church were persecuted, and contended
even unto death. Let us set before our eyes the good Apostles."
Clement thereupon mentions the deaths of Peter and Paul, which
indisputably indicates that he is referring to the Neronic persecution.
The fact that he mentions the deaths of "the good Apostles" in "our
generation" suggests a very recent occurrence that is quite compatible
with a date around A.D. 69 or 70. And although possible, the
"generation" would be on the outside reach of a date of A.D. 96
(which would be close to thirty years after the events).
Furthermore, it is more than a little interesting that Clement
names a few of those who died in the Neronian persecution. In 1
Clement 5 he names Peter and Paul, but also in 1 Clement 6 we read
of the names of a couple of other martyrs now virtually unknown,
Danaids and Dircae. It is quite remarkable that he cites names of
those involved in the Neronian persecution that allegedly occurred
about thirty years previous to his own day, but that he is strangely
silent about the names of those who died in the Domitianic persecution
– even though they are supposed to have been prominent members
of his own congregation!
In both sections five and six Clement devotes many sentences to
explication of these Neronian woes. But it is quite curious, on the
supposition of a Domitianic date, that in 1 Clement 1 he uses only
ten words (in the Greek) to refer to the Domitianic persecution, the
persecution through which he and many of his friends were allegedly
going. That reference reads: "by reason of the sudden and successive
troubles and calamities which have befidlen us." If the letter were
written sometime approaching or in early A.D. 70, however, then the
first, fifth, and sixth sections would all speak of the Neronian persecu-
60. Ibid., pp. 194~
61. Barnes, Chri.rtiani~ at Rome, pp. 213ff.
180 BEFORE JERUSALEM FELL
tion. In the course of its long history the city of Rome had never
witnessed so many "sudden and successive troubles and calamities"
among its population generally and for the Christians particularly
than in the later Neronian period, the era that eventually issued forth
in the chaotic Year of the Four 13mperors. Tacitus introduces Rome's
history after the death of Nero thus:
I proceed to a work rich in disasters, fill of atrocious battles, of
discord and rebellion, yea, horrible even in peace. Four princes killed
by the sword; three civil wars, several foreign wars; and mostly raging
at the same time. Favorable events in the East the Jewish War won,
unfortunate ones in the West. Illyria disturbed, Gaul uneasy; Britain
conquered and soon relinquished; the nations of Sarmatia and Suevia
rising against us; the Parthians excited by the deception of a pseudo-
Nero. Italy also weighed down by new or oft-repeated calamities;
cities swallowed up or buried in ruins; Rome laid waste by conflagrations,
the old temples burned up, even the capitol set on fire by
citizens; sanctuaries desecrated; adultery rampant in high places. The
seas filled with exiles; the rocky islands contaminated with murder.
Still more horrible the fury in the city. Nobility, riches, places of
honor, whether declined or occupied, counted as crimes, and virtue
sure of destruction.62
Of this period it truly may be said that "there is scarcely another
period in history so full of vice, corruption, and disaster as the six
years between the Neronian persecution and the destruction ofJerusalem."
e3 Nothing approaching this chaos or even hinting at this level
of upheaval was remotely associated with Domitian's death. Combining
the Neronian persecution begun in A.D. 64 or 65 with the Roman
Civil War in A.D. 68-69, all becomes very clear.
Finally, there is the very Temple reference in question in 1
Clement 41 (cited above). It may be that an "ideal present" is
intended by Clement; but all things considered, the reference to the
Temple services as if they were still being conducted is best construed
as demanding a pre-August, A.D. 70 dating. Edmundson insists that
"it is difficult to see how the evidential value of c. xii. can be explained
away. "64
62. Histories 1:2
63. Philip Schaff, Histoy of tb Christian Church, 8 vols. (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans,
1910 1950) 1:391.
64. Edmundson, Church in Row, p. 193.
Tb Contempora~ Integrip of tb Temple 181
It would seem that, at the very least, reference to the statement
in 1 Clement 41 cannot discount the possibility of our approach to
Revelation 11, in that the date of 1 Clement is in question. And as is
probably the case, Clement did write his epistle prior to the Temple's
destruction.
The Alleged Silence of Ear~ Christiuni~
It is objected by a number of scholars that, contrary to what we
might expect, early Christian literature did not make much of the
fall of Jerusalem and the destruction of the Temple. Consequently,
it is not a serious matter for John, writing in the A.D. 90s, to make
any room for the destruction of the city and Temple that occurred
in A.D. 70: "We should expect . . . that an event like the fall of
Jerusalem would have dinted some of the literature of the primitive
church, almost as the victory at Salamis has marked the Persae. It
might be supposed that such an epoch-making crisis would even
furnish criteria for determining the dates of some of the NT writings.
As a matter of fact, the catastrophe is practically ignored in the extant
Christian literature of the first century."G5 Or, as put by another
scholar: "It is hard to believe that a Judaistic type of Christianity
which had itself been closely involved in the cataclysm leading up to
A.D. 70 would not have shown the scars – or, alternatively, would
not have made capital out of this signal evidence that they, and not
non-Christian Judaism, were the true Israel. But in fact our traditions
are silent."GG
At this juncture we will bring forth three points to establish our
thesis. We will begin by demonstrating the tenuousness of the assertions
of Moffatt and others regarding the first century evidence.
Then, we will cite several Jewish works of this era that show the
significance ofJerusalem's fdl to the Jewish mind. Finally, a long list
of sources from later (ante-Nicene) Christian tradition showing the
significance of the destruction of Jerusalem for apostolic and early
post-apostolic Christendom will be brought forward. Having done
this, it should become obvious that a silence on the matter in canoni-
65. James Moffatt, An Introdudion to the Literature $ the NezeJ 72stament, 3 vols. (Edinburgh:
T. & T. Clark, 1911) 3:3.
66. Moule, Birth of the New Testamwzt, 1st ed. (Cambridge: University Press, 1962), p.
123. In his third edition of the work (New York: Harper & Row, 1982), he has changed
his views on this matter.
182 BEFORE JERUSALEM FELL
cal New Testament literature would be most remarkable, especially
in a book of the nature of Revelation that deals so frequently with the
Jews.
l%~t, let us consider the first century Christian evidence. Much
of what Moffatt, the early Moule, and others of their convictions
write depends upon the supposition that most of the New Testament
was written after A.D. 70. In other words, such a position requires
that many of the New Testament books were written after the destruction
of Jerusalem, and thus are cases in point that early Christian
literature does not mention Jerusalem's fall. C. C. Torrey argues
from the perspective that the Gospels and the Apocalypse, at least,
were not written after Jerusalem's fall: "It is perhaps conceivable
that one evangelist writing after the year 70 might fail to allude to the
destrudion of the temple by the Roman armies (every reader of the
Hebrew Bible knew that the Prophets had definitely predicted that
foreign armies would surround the city and destroy it), but that three
(or four) should thus fail is quite incredible. On the contrary, what
is shown is that all four Gospels were wnitten before the year 70. And
indeed, there is no evidence of any sort that will bear examination
tending to show that any of the Gospels were written later than about
the middle of the century. The challenge to scholars to produce such
evidence is hereby presented ."67 John A. T. Robinson – no conservative
zealot, to say the least68 – has even more recently and very
powerfully argued this point: "One of the oddest facts about the New
Testament is that what on any showing would appear to be the single
most datable and climactic event of the period – the fall ofJerusalem
in A.D. 70, and with it the collapse of institutional Judaism based
on the temple — is never once mentioned as a past fact. "69 H i s
demonstration that all books of the New Testament should be dated
prior to A.D. 70 has swayed a number of careful scholars, Moule
among them.70 Obfiously if the entire canon was completed before
the destruction of Jerusalem, there would be no historical reference
back to the catastrophe!
67. C. C. Torrey, The Four Gmpels, 2nd ed. (New York Harper, 1947), p. xiii. Cp.
Torrey, Apoca~pse, p, 86.
68. Robinson, Redating, p. 11: "My position will probably seem surprisingly conser-mtive
– especially to those who judge me radical OP other is sues." See especially his radical
views in his book Honsst to God.
69. Ibid., p. 13.
70. Moule, Birth of th New Tutament, 3rd cd., pp. 173ff. Contrast this with the first
The Contemporap Integrip of the Tmple 183
1 Clement, too, is oftentimes brought in at this point in the
argument as a first century Christian evidence that is silent on
Jerusalem's demise. But because of the possible date of writing
argued above, 1 Clement cannot be considered as evidence in that it
was most probably written before Jerusalem's fall.
With the dismissal of the New Testament canonical books and 1
Clement from consideration, the Moffatt and (early) Moule argument
is virtually eliminated. But these are not the only early Christian
works available to us. The Epistle of Barnabas is almost certainly
a first century Christian work. Lightioot and Milligan date it between
70 and 79, as do Weizsacker, Hurst, and Bartlet.71 Schaff, Hilgenfeld,
Coxe, and Roberts and Donaldson date it "at the close of the first
century. "72 Reuss, Ewald, Wieseler, and Funk from 79 to 100.73
Robinson dates it between 75 and 100, and Frend "as early as" A.D.
100.'4
In Barnabas 4:14 and 5:11 we read the following:
Moreover understand this also, my brothers. When ye see that after
so many signs and wonders wrought in Israel, even then they were
abandoned, let us give heed, lest haply we be found, as the scripture
saith, many called but fw chosen. . . .
Therefore the Son of God came in the flesh to this end, that He might
sum up the complete tale of their sins against those who persecuted
and slew His prophets.
At Barnabas 13:1 we read of the distinction between the Christians
and the Jews: "Now let us see whether this people or the first people
bath the inheritance, and whether the covenant had reference to us
or to them." In Barnabas 16:1 ff. we read of the demise of the Temple:
edition of this work. See also Cornelis Vanderwaal, Search the Scriptures, trans. Theodore
Plantinga, vol. 1: Germis – Exodus (St. Catharines, Ontario: Paideia, 1978), p. 11.
71. See Joseph B. Lightfoot and J. R. Harrner, The Apostolic Fathms (Grand Rapids:
Baker, 1891  1984), pp. 240-241. George L. Hurst, An Outline of the HistQy of C7w-istian
Lit=mdwe (New York: Macmillan, 1926), p. 11. James Muilenburg, Tb Literary Relations
of the Epirtle of Barnabas and th Teazhing of the Twelue Apostles ( Marburg: Yale, 1921), p. 2.
For Milligan, see Schafi Hr.stoy 2:678n.
72. Scha~ Histoy 2:678; Coxe, ANF 1: 133; Roberts and Donaldson, ANF 1:135.
73. For bibliographic references see Schaff, Hzktory 2:678n.
74. Robinson, Redating, pp. 313iTj W. H. C. Frend, Tb Ear~ Church (Philadelphia:
Fortress, 1982), p. 37.
184 BEFORE JERUSALEM FELL
"Moreover I will tell you likewise concerning the temple, how these
wretched men being led astray set their hope on the building, and
not on their God that made them, as being a house of God. . . . So
it cometh to pass; for because they went to war it was pulled down
by their enemies. . . . Again, it was revealed how the city and the
temple and the people of Israel should be betrayed. For the scripture
saith; and it shall be in the last days, that the Lord shall deliver up
the sheep of the pasture and the fold and the tower thereof to
destruction." It is indisputably clear that Barnabas makes much of
the fact ofJerusalem's fall as an apologetic for Christianity.
Ignatius wrote around 107.75 And although clear and explicitly
detailed reference is not made to Jerusalem's fall in Ignatius's letters,
there is what seems to be an allusion to the matter. In the Epistle of
Ignatius to the Magnesians 10 we read: "It is absurd to speak ofJesus
Christ with the tongue, and to cherish in the mind a Judaism which
has now come to an end." With the demise of the Temple, Judaism
is incapable of worshiping in the manner prescribed in the Law of
God; it has come to an end. This is used by Ignatius to enhance the
role of Christianity against that of now defunct Bible-based Judaism.
Justin Martyr wrote his The First Apology of Ju.rtin about A.D.
147.76 Thus, it is less than fif~ years past the first century. In this
work we read at 1 Apology 32:
And the prophecy, "He shall be the expectation of the nations,"
signified that there would be some of all nations who should look for
Him to come again. And this indeed you can see for yourselves, and
be convinced of by fact. For of all races of men there are some who
look for Him who was crucified in Judea, and after whose crucifixion
the land was straightway surrendered to you as spoil of war. And the
prophecy, "binding His foal to the vine, and washing His robe in the
blood of the grape," was a significant symbol of the things that were
to happen to Christ, and of what He was to do. For the foal of an *
stood bound to a vine at the entrance of a village, and He ordered His
acquaintances to bring it to Him then; and when it was brought, He
mounted and sat upon it, and entered Jerusalem, where was the vast
temple of the Jews which was afterwards destroyed by you.~'
75. W. H. C. Frend, The Rise of Chr&irmi~ (Philadelphia: Fortress, 1984), p. 917.
76. Schaff, Hi.rtoV 2:716.
77. ANF 1:173.
The Contemporary Integrip of tfw Tmple 185
Here Justin clearly ties in the destruction ofJudea with the crucif~ion
of Christ, as effect is tied to cause. In 1 APo/ogy 47 he argues that the
destruction of Jerusalem was prophesied in the Old Testament.78 In
chapter 53 he makes the Christian message very explicitly depend
upon Jerusalem's demise: "For with what reason should we believe
of a crucified man that He is the first-born of the unbegotten God,
and Himself will pass judgment on the whole human race, unless we
had found testimonies concerning Him published before He came
and was born as man, and unless we saw that things had happened
accordingly — the devastation of the land of the Jews."79 In his
Dialogue with T~@o the Jew, chapters 16 and 4Q, he uses this historical
fact again.80
In Book 1 of the Sibylline Oracles we have what Collins calls "an
original Jewish oracle and an extensive Christian redaction. "81 An
important part of the Christian redaction is found in the section
1:324-400. Unfortunately, the evidence for the date of this entire
Sibylline oracle is "scanty and less than conclusive. " But at 1:324-
400, although there is some debate, the "consensus of scholars" is
that even the section 1:387-400 is part of the Christian redaction.82
Collins expresses agreement with the conclusions of A. M. Kufiess,83
writing that "since no other historical event is mentioned after the
destruction of Jerusalem, the Christian redaction should probably
be dated no later than A.D. 150."84 This put the Christian section,
which is significant for our inquiry, quite close to the first century
witness.
Sibylline Oracles 1:360-364, 387-400 reads:
And then Israel,' intoxicated, will not perceive
nor yet will she hear, afllicted with weak ears.
But when the raging wrath of the Most High
comes upon the Hebrews
it will also take faith away from them,
78. ANF 1:178.
79. ANF 1:180.
80. ANF 1:202,215.
81. Collins, "Sibylline Oracles," 07T 1:330.
82. Ibid. 1:331.
83. A. M. Kurfess, in Z-itschrij jiir die Neutestamrstlidu Wissenscha@ und dti Kunde &r
ultaen Kirche 40 (1941): 165. Cited in Collins, "Sibylline Oracles," 07T' 1 :332n.
84. Collins, "Sibylline Oracles," OTP 1:332.
186 BEFORE JERUSALEM FELL
because they did harm to the son of the heavenly
God. . . .
Then when the Hebrews reap the bad harvest,
a Roman king will ravage much gold and silver.
Thereafter there will be other kingdoms
continuously, as kingdoms perish
and they will afflict mortals. But there will be
a great fall for those men when they launch on
unjust haughtiness.
But when the temple of Solomon falls in the illustrious
land
cast down by men of barbarian speech
with bronze breastplates, the Hebrews will be
driven from their land;
wandering, being slaughtered, they will mix much
darnels in their wheat.
There will be evil strife for all men;
and the cities, violated in turn,
will weep for each other on receiving the wrath of
the great
God in their bosom, since they committed an evil
deed.85
Collins notes the reference to the Roman king and states that it is "an
obvious reference to the defeat of the Jews in A.D. 70"; he further
notes that the reference to Solomon's Temple in verse 393 "refers to
the same event."8G Here is a clear Christian reference – and assuredly
an early one — to the destruction of Jerusalem as a vindication
of Christianity and a judgment on the Jews for harming "the son
of the heavenly God."
Second, the Jewish writers of this era (and shortly thereafter) feel
the pain and anguish of the loss ofJerusalem, a pain that cannot but
be useful to those who follow the One who prophesied its destruction,
Jesus Christ (Matt. 24:2, parallels).
2 Esdras is almost certainly to be dated about the year 100 in its
original form. This date is argued by such noted scholars as G. H.
85. Ibid. 1 :343f.
86. Ibid. 1 :344n.
Tb Contempora~ Integtip of the Temple 187
Box, J. M. Myers, Robinson, and Bruce M. Metzger.87 Such a date
rests upon solid evidence. In 2 Esdras 3:1 we read: "In the thirtieth
year after the downfall of the City I Salathiel – who am also
Ezra – was in Babylon, and as I lay on my bed I was disquieted."
Of this statement it can be noted that "we are, therefore, justified in
concluding that the date, like other features in S, was intended to
bear a typical significance, and that it typifies the thirtieth year after
the destruction of Jerusalem by Titus, i.e., the year 100 A.D. Consequently
S maybe regarded as having been originally written and put
forth in 100 A.D."W
In 2 Esdras, the writer is greatly troubled by the destruction of
Jerusalem and the wealth of Rome (cryptically designated "Babylon").
2 Esdras 3:2K reads: "I was troubled as I lay on my bed, and
my thoughts welled up in my heart, because I saw the desolation of
Zion and the wealth of those who lived in Babylon. My spirit was
greatly agitated, and I began to speak anxious words to the Most
High." Afiter noting God's justice upon Adam's sin (3:4f.), upon the
wicked in Noah's day (3:8ff. ), and upon Egypt (3: 17ff.), he asks:
"Then I said in my heart, Are the deeds of those who inhabit Babylon
any better? Is that why she has gained dominion over Zion? For
when I came here I saw ungodly deeds without number, and my
soul has seen many sinners during these thirty years." The writer
laments the historical fact that Rome inhabits Jerusalem and Israel
has been overthrown. This lamentation of Israel's fate occupies his
attention from 3:1 through 5:19.
A work very similar to 2 Esdras in many respects is the Jewish
work 2 Baruch. It is probably to be dated in the second or third
decade of the second century.89 In 2 Baruch 1:1-5 the author opens
with a "prophecy" of the "coming" destruction of Jerusalem that is
explained as a divine means of chastening Israel. This EX eventu
"prophecy" illustrates the significance of Jerusalem's demise to the
early Jews, the first persecutors of Christianity.
In Sibylline Oracles 4 ("a political oracle from the Hellenistic age
87. G. H. Box, The E2ra-Apoca~@e (London: Pitman, 1912), p. xxix. J. M. Myers, Z
and 11 Esdra.r: Introduction, Translation and ComnwntaV. Anchor Bible (Garden City, NY
Doubleday, 1974), pp. 129ff. Robinson, Reahting, pp. 247, 315. M. Metzger, "The Fourth
Book of Ezra," in OTP 1:520.
88. Box, E,zra-Apoca~@e, p. xxix.
89. A. F. J. Klijn, "2 (Syriac Apaalypse of) Baruch," in OTP 1:617.
188 BEFORE JERUSALEM FELL
updated by a Jew in the late first century A. D.")W there is a clear
sign of Jewish redaction relative to the destruction of Jerusalem. "All
scholars agree that it was written shortly after the last datable event
mentioned — therefore about A.D. 80. "91 At 4:115ff. we read:
An evil storm of war will also come upon
Jerusalem
from Italy, and it will sack the great Temple of
God>
whenever they put their trust in folly and cast off
piety
and commit repulsive murders in front of the
Temple. . . .
A leader of Rome will come to Syria who will burn
the Temple of Jerusalem with fire, at the same
time slaughter
many men and destroy the great land of the Jews
with its broad roads.
Then indeed an earthquake will destroy at once
Salamis and Paphos
when the dark water overwhelms Cyprus, which
is washed by many waves.92
The pain and shock overwhelming the Jewish writer at the destruction
of Jerusalem and the Temple is evident. And the apparent
vindication of Israel is urged by the destruction wreaked by the
eruption of Vesuvius in A.D. 79.
Sibylline Oracles 5 is "an important witness to at least one strand
of Egyptian Judaism" that was written at a "date in the last years of
the first century A. D."93 It, too, speaks of Jerusalem's destruction
and expects divine judgment upon Rome for it (5: 137-178, 397ff.).
In the Apocalypse of Abraham we have another Jewish witness
of early date. R. Rubinkiewicz writes that "it is commonly held that
our pseudepigraphon was composed at the end of the first century
90. Collins, "Sibylline Oracles," OTP 1:381.
91. Ibid. 1:382.
92. Sibyllinz Oracles 4115-118, 125-129; in ibid., 1:387.
93. Ibid. 1:391, 390.
The ContemPora~ Integtip of the Temple 189
A. D."94 J. H. Charlesworth, in his editorial emendation to the article
by Rubinkiewicz, writes that: "our pseudepigraphon was written after
A.D. 70, because the author describes the destruction of Jerusalem
(cf. ch. 27). Hence, the apocalypse – that is the early Jewish stratum
– was composed sometime after A.D. 70 and before the middle
of the second century. "95 G. H. Box and J. I. Landsman concur.gb
L. Ginzberg places it in "the last decades of the first century."97
It is important to bear in mind that: "the Apocalypse of Abraham
is one of the most important works written after the destruction of
the nation in A.D. 70. The importance of the apocalypse can be
compared to that of 2 Baruch or 4 Ezra, but our author analyzes the
causes of the destruction of Jerusalem from a different perspective:
The defeat was caused by the infidelity of Israel toward the covenant
with God and the opportunistic politics of some leaders. "98 In chapter
27:1-6 we read of this Jewish lamentation over Jerusalem:
And I looked and I saw, and behold the picture swayed. And from its
left side a crowd of heathens ran out and they captured the men,
women, and children who were on its right side. And some they
slaughtered and others they kept with them. Behold, I saw (them)
running to them by way of four ascents and they burned the Temple
with fire, and they plundered the holy things that were in it. And I
said, "Eternal One, the people you received from me are being robbed
by the hordes of the heathen. They are killing some and holding
others as aliens, and they burned the Temple with fire and they are
stealing and destroying the beautiful things which are in it. Eternal,
Mighty One! If this is so, why now have you afflicted my heart and
why will it be so?"
Clearly this first century Jewish work despairs over the fall ofJerusalem.
Of course, it does not attribute it to the Jewish role in the
crucifixion of Christ, but it does illustrate again that the fall had a
tremendous impact on the minds and affections of post-fall Judaism.
This impact was not overlooked by the Christian tradition, as we
94. R. Rubinkiewiez, "Apocalypse of Abraham," in tbtd. 1:683.
95. See ibid. 1:683.
96. G. H. Box and J. I. Landsman, l%e Apoca@e afAbraham (London: Pitman, 1918),
p. xv ff.
97. L. Ginzberg, "Apocalypse of Abraham, " in Tlu Jewish Emylofiedia (New York
KTAV, 1953-1968) 1:92.
98. Rubinkiewicz, "Apocalypse of Abraham," OTP 1:685.
190 BEFORE JERUSALEM FELL
have seen already and will again see next.
Third, the later ante-Nicene Christian tradition is replete with
references to the significance of the fall of Jerusalem. It seems that
only today is that significance not comprehended. The following
survey is based on the ten volume series entitled Th Ante-Nicene
Fathers edited by Alexander Roberts and James Donaldson and
jointly republished by T. & T. Clark and Eerdmans. Any references
given hereinafter should be understood to refer to the appropriate
volume of this series. Because of the great variety of references, only
a few will be quoted; the large majority will simply be referenced.
Melito of Sardis flourished c. 160- 180.W In the fragments of his
work we read of his words against the Jews for cruelly cruci~ing
Christ. At the end of a lengthy section detailing their error, he writes:
"Thou smotest thy Lord: thou also hast been smitten upon the earth.
And thou indeed Iiest dead; but He is risen from the place of the dead,
and ascended to the height of heaven." '00
Hegesippus flourished c. 170-175.10 We have presemed in the
fragments of his Commentaries on the Acts a record of the martyrdom of
James the Just by the Jews, in which he says: "And so he suffered
martyrdom; and they buried him on the spot, and the pillar erected
to his memory still remains, close by the Temple. This man was a
true witness to both Jews and Greeks that Jesus is the Christ. . . .
And shortly after that Vespasian besieged Judaea, taking them captive
'> 102 He ties in the pe=ecution of Christ's apostle James to the
destruction ofJerusalem.
Clement of Alexandria, writing either at about A.D. 190103 or
A.D. 2001W mentions Jerusalem's fall in his Afi.scellantis 1:21.'05 There
he relates the fall to a fulfillment of Daniel's prophecy of "Seventy
Weeks." The relevant portion of the reference reads as follows: "The
half of the week Nero held sway, and in the holy city Jerusalem
placed the abomination; and in the half of the week he was taken
99. Schaff, Htitoy 2:73% Kurt Akmd, A Histov of Christiani~, 2 VOIS., trans. James
L. Schaaf (Philadelphia: Fortress, 1985) 1 :41~ Frend, The Rire o. C/ztitiatity, p. 240.
100. For text, see ANF %757.
101. See ANF 8:762; SchatT, Hirtov 2:743; Frend, Rire of Chr-Mani@, p. 921.
102. Hegesippus, Commentaries on thz Acts. See ANF 8:763.
103. Frend, Rire of Christiuti~, p. 190.
104. William Wilson, in ANF 2:168.
105. ANF 2:329.
Tb Contanpora~ Integrip of the Tmple 191
away, and Otho, and Galba, and Vitellius. And Vespasian rose to
the supreme power, and destroyed Jerusalem, and desolated the holy
place. And that such are the facts of the case, is clear to him that is
able to understand, as the prophet i.e., Daniel said." He mentions
it again several pages later in the same book and chapter, again
relating it to Daniel's prophecy. 'W Thus, Clement ties the fall of
Jerusalem to God's divine intervention in judgment upon Israel by
prophetic decree.
In Mticellanies 4:15 he quotes Th Preaching of Peter, which ties the
fall of Jerusalem into the rejection of Christ by the Jews: "Whence
also Peter, in his Preaching, speaking of the apostles, says: 'But we,
unrolling the books of the prophets which we possess, who name
Jesus Christ, partly in parables, partly in enigmas, partly expressly
and in so many words, find His coming and death, and cross, and all
the rest of the tortures which the Jews inflicted on Him, and His
resurrection and assumption to heaven previous to the capture of
Jerusalem. As it is written, Thae things are all that He behooves to sufier,
and what should be a>er Him. Recognizing them, therefore, we have
believed in God in consequence of what is written respecting Him.' "107
In quoting this earlier work, Clement provides a double indication
of the significance of the fall of Jerusalem, his own and that from
Peter's Preaching.
Other early references to Jerusalem's fall include the following:
Tertullian (d. 220):
Apology, chapter 21 (ANF 3:34), chapter 26 (ANF 3:40);
An Answer to tk JiuJs, chapter 3 (ANF 3: 154), chapter 8 (ANF
158E), chapter 13 (ANF 3:168K);
Agaimt Marcion 3:23 (ANF 3:341 ff.), 439 (ANF 3:415ff.).
Th Recognitions of Clement (dated c. pre-211) 1081:44 (ANF 8:94).
Th Clementine Homilies (dated c. first part of third century) 1093:15
(ANF 8:241).
Lactantius (A.D. 260-330):
Z% Divim lnstituta 421 (ANF 7:123-124);
Th Epitome @t/u Diviw Instituta 46 (ANF 7:241).
106. ANF 2:334.
107. ANF 2:510.
108. Thomas Smith, "Recognitions of Clement," in ANF 874.
109. M. B. Riddle, "Introductory Notice to the Pseudo-Clementine Literature" in
ANF8:70.
192 BEFORE JERUSALEM FELL
Ttw Constitution of th Ho~ Apostk.s (c. second half of third century) 110
6:2:5 (WW 7:451) and 6:5:25 (AIW 7:461).
Conclusion
Interestingly, one of the most datable events of ancient history is
the destruction of the Temple in Jerusalem. Christian and pagan
sources alike, as well as archaeological data, point to A.D. 70 very
clearly. The fall of the Temple and of Jerusalem were major events
in the history of not only Judaism but also Christianity. Early Christians
made much of this, employing it as an apologetic datum. It has
been shown that at the time of the writing of Revelation the Temple
complex is spoken of as still standing. It is inconceivable that a book
of the nature of Revelation could fail to mention its already having
been destroyed, if Revelation were written after A.D. 70. This evidence,
along with that regarding the rei~ of the sixth king that
preceded, form unsurpassable barriers to a date post-A.D. 70.
110. The date of The Constitutions of the Ho~ Apostles is much disputed, Von Drey held
to the date indicated (ANF 7:388), as did SchafT (Htitmy 2:185) and Hamack (ANF
7:388).
12
THE ROLE OF NERO CAESAR
In an earlier section we demonstrated that the reference to the
seven kings in Revelation 17 indicated that the sixth king was presently
ruling when John wrote the book. There we showed that the
sixth king must have been Nero Caesar, in that he was the sixth
emperor of the Roman Empire. At this point we turn to a further
consideration of evidences of Nero's appearance in Revelation.
The Gematria "666"
One of the best known features of Revelation among the general
Christian populace today is also one of its most misunderstood. That
feature is the gematria riddle in Revelation 13. There is a widespread
awareness of and interest in this intriguing passage of Revelation
13:18, which says: "Here is wisdom. Let him who has understanding
calculate the number of the beast, for the number is that of a man;
and his number is six hundred and sixty-six. " In order to gain a
proper conception of this verse, a little historical and cultural background
will be necessary.
Anctint Numm"cal Riddles
In ancient days alphabets served a two-fold purpose. Their first
and foremost design was, of course, their service as letters from which
words were composed in written communication. But in the second
place, letters were also assigned numerical values and thus served as
numerals. The most familiar example of this dual function of alpha-
1. Mounce suggests that "no verse in Revelation has reeeived more attention than
this one with its cryptic referenee to the number of the beast" (Robert H. Mounce, T/u
Book of Revelation. New Intzmational Camnwnta~ on the New Testament Grand Rapids:
Eerdmans, 1977, p. 263).
193
194 BEFORE JERUSALEM FELL
bets can be found in the Roman numeral system. In Roman numerals
the letter I possessed the numerical value of 1; V was 5; X was 10;
C was 100; D was 500; and so forth. The Greek and Hebrew languages
operated similarly, although their numerical equivalents followed
the alphabetic order and employed the entire alphabet.2
Because of the two-fold use of letters as both alphabets and
numbering systems, cryptogrammic riddles were common in ancient
cultures. Cryptograms involved the adding up of the numerical values
of the letters of a word, particularly a proper name.3 In Greek
these riddles were called ioo y&pza ("numerical equality"); in Rabbinic
Hebrew such cryptograms were known as "gematria" (from the
Hebrew word for "mathematical").4 By the very nature of the case
cryptograms almost invariably involved a riddle. This can be seen
in that the word very simply could have been spelled out, and also
in that any particular arithmetical value could fit a number of words
or names.
Zahn provides us an example of a cryptogram discovered in
excavations from Pompeii, which was buried by volcanic eruption in
A.D. 79. In Greek the inscription written was: @zi3 ij< @9p6G @
p E ("I love her whose number is 545").
The name of the lover is concealed; the beloved will know it when she
recognises her name in the sum of the numerical value of the 3 letters
@p e, i.e., 545(@ = 500 + p = 40 + e = 5). But the passing stranger
does not know in the very least who the beloved is, nor does the 19th
century investigator know which of the many Greek feminine names
she bore. For he does not know how many letters there are in the
name which gives us the total of 545 when added numerically.5
2. For Greek, see W. G. Rutherford, 2% First Greek Grammar (London: 1935), pp.
143ff. For Hebrew see E. Kautzsch, cd., Gszeniss' Hebrew Grammar, 28th cd., trans. E.
Cowley (Oxford: Clarendon, 1946), p. 30. See individual alphabetic entries in G.
Abbott-Smith, A Mawal Greek Lasimz of th Nero Tukvrwrzt (Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark,
1937), ad. 10C.; and Joseph H. Thayer, A Greek-English Lexizon of tlu Nsw T~tument (New
York: American Book, 1889), ad. 10C.
3. Irenaeus mentions this phenomenon in his Agaimt Heresia 5:30:1 (although this
statement is probably by a later copyist): "numbers also are expressed by letters."
4. J. Massyngberde Ford, Rewlation. Anchor Bible (Garden City: Doubleday, 1975),
p. 225.
5. Cited in Oskar Ruble, '(dp@z&f' in Gerhard Kittel, cd., I%obgkal Dictionary oj
th New Testarrwnt TDNT-, trans. Geoffrey W. Bromiley, vol. 1 (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans,
1964), p. 462. See also Miller Burrows, What Mean These Stonss? (New Haven:
American Schools of Oriental Research, 1941), p. 270.
The Role of Nero Caesar 195
In Suetonius's Lives of thz Twelue Caesars we have recorded an
interesting cryptogram from the first century. In the midst of his
Latin history, Suetonius records a sample of a Greek lampoon that
was circulated after the burning of Rome: "NEC5v@Ov N.4pov L?Xav
pqwipa 6XT6KTEZVE" ("A calculation new. Nero his mother slew.")G
It is interesting to note that "the numerical value of the Greek letters
in Nero's name (1005) is the same as that of the rest of the sentence;
hence we have an equation, Nero= the slayer of one's own mother.'"
An additional example, also employing Nero's name, can be found
in the Sibylline Oracles:
One who has fifty as an initial will be commander,
A terrible snake, breathing out grievous war, who one day will lay
hands on his own family and slay them, and throw everything into
confusion,
athlete, charioteer, murderer, one who dares ten thousand things.8
Here Nero's initial is recorded as possessing the value of 50.
Still another example is found in the Christian Sibylline Oracles
(c. 150):
Then indeed the son of the great God will come,
incarnate, likened to mortal men on earth,
bearing four vowels, and the consonants in him are two.
I will state explicitly the entire number for you.
For eight units, and equal number of tens in addition to these, and
eight hundreds will reveal the name.g
As the translator notes: "le~ous ~esus has a numerical equivalence
of888.'"0
A few additional early Christian references showing the alphabetic
evaluation of numbers can be mentioned. In Barnabas, chapter
9, "Barnabas" derives the name of Christ and the fact of the cross
from the number of men Abraham circumcised in his household. In
his day Irenaeus dealt with certain heresies based on mystic num-
6. Suetonius, Nero 39:2.
7. Suetonius, Lines of tb Twelve Caesars, vol. 2, trans. J. C. Rolfe. Loeb Classical
Library (Cambridge Harvard, 1913), p. 158.
8. Sibyllitw Oracles 5:28-31. In James H. Charlesworth, cd., Old Testament Pseudepigrapha,
2 vols (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1983) 1:393.
9. Silylltrw Oracles 1:324-329; OTP 1:342.
10. Collins, "Sibylline Oracles," OTP 1:342.
196 13 E~0RE JERUSAI.EM ~E1.1,
hers.' 1 Tertullian sees in Gideon's choice of 300 men a cryptic reference
to the letter "T," which signifies the sign of the cross. 12
Of ancient cryptograms we should note that there are "countless
examples from classical and Hellenistic and indeed Rabbinic literature.'"
3 Caird points out several specific examples of gematria in
rabbinic writings, 14 while Eduard Reuss writes: "The mechanism of
the problem i.e., the problem in Revelation 13: 18 is based upon one
of the cabalistic artifices in use in Jewish hermeneutics, which consisted
in calculating the numerical value of the letters composing a
word. This method, called ge/zmatria, or geometrical, that is, mathematical,
was used by the Jews in the exegesis of the Old Testamerit.
"15 The point is clear: cryptograms were common among the
ancients, even among Christians. Hence, the gematria in Revelation
is not something created de novo by John; rather, the idea involved a
familiar concept to the ancients.
The Textual Variant
Another introductory matter undoubtedly of significance in determining
the identity of this "666" is the matter of the textual variant
in the Greek of Revelation 13:18. Although both the strongest manuscript
evidence and intrinsic probability are supportive of the reading
"666," 16 there is some slight manuscript and historical evidence for
the number "616."
Instead of .AprjKovrcz, which is strongly supported by p~7 N A P 046
11. Agamd Herestes 2:24:1 ff., written ca. 185,
12. Cann, adu. Marc, 3:4. Cited in Frederic W. Farrar, The Ear~ Day.r of Chrz.rtzanip
(New York: Cassells, 1884), p. 469 n. 1.
13. Riihle, "apmps<," TDNT 1:462.
14. G. B. Caird, A Commentay on the Revelation of St, John the Dimae (New York: Harper
& Row, 1966), p. 174. See the Babylonian Talmud: Yormr 20a; * 5' ; Sanhedrin 22';
UZkin 12.
15. Eduard Reuss, Htitory of Christtan Theoo~ in th Apostolic Age, cited in J. Stuart
Russell, The Parousza: A Study of ttw New Testament Doctrine of Our I,ord'~ Second Coming, 2nd
ed. (Grand Rapids: Baker, 1887 rep, 1983), p. 557.
16. The number 666 is accepted by the committees of all the major Greek New
Testaments, to wit: Eberhard Nestle, cd., Novum Testamentum Graece, 25th ed. (Stuttgart:
Wurttembergische Bibelanstalt, 1963), p. 638; R. V. G. Tasker, cd., The Greek New
Testament, Being the Text Translated in the New Engltsh Ehble 1!%1 (Oxford: Clxford University
Press, 1964), p. 396; The Textu.s Rtceptm (1.ondon: Billing and Sons, 1967), p. 61* Kurt
Aland, Matthew Black, et. al., eds., The Greek New Tedament, 3rd ed. (Munster: West
Germany, 1975), p. 869; and Zanc C. Hodges and Arthur 1.. Farstad, eds., The Greek New
Testament According to the Majorio Text, 2nd ed. (Nashville: Thomas Nelson, 1985), p. 765.
The Role of Nero Caesar 197
051 all extant minuscule it@g vg syz+h~h Copsa>bo armal, &$za is read
by C some manuscripts known to Irenaeus (who, however, says that
666 is found "in all good and ancient copies," and is "attested by those
who had themselves seen John face to face"), and TyconiusPt. According
to Tischendorfs 8th cd., the numeral 616 was also read by two
minuscule manuscripts which unfortunately are no longer extant (nos.
5 and 11; cf. C. R. Gregory, Prolegomena, p. 676). When Greek letters
are used as numerals the difference between 666 and 616 is merely a
change fi-om <to z (666 = jy<< and 616 = ~<). 17
Irenaeus's reference to the variation is as follows:
Such, then, being the state of the case, and this number i.e., 666
being found in all the most approved and ancient copies of the
Apocalypse, and those men who saw John face to face bearing their
testimony to it . . . I do not know how it is that some have erred
following the ordinary mode of speech, and have vitiated the middle
number in the name, deducting the amount of fifty from it, so that
instead of six decads they will have it that there is but one. Others
then received this reading without examination; some in their simplicity,
and upon their own responsibility, making use of this number
expressing one decad; while some, in their experience, have ventured
to seek out a name which should contain the erroneous and spurious
number. 18
Although the manuscript evidence for the variant is relatively
sparse, the very fact that it exists is significant. "The reading thus
curtly dismissed by Irenaeus gained so good a footing that it
survives in one of our best uncials and in two cursives, and in the
commentary of the Pseudo-Augustine, where the writer probably
follows Tyconius."lg Thus, although it is certain that the original
17. Bruce M. Metzger, A Textual Commentary on the Greek New Testanwnt (London:
United Bible Societies, 197 1), pp. 751-752. Punctuation standardized.
18. Irenaeus, Agamrt Heresia 5:30:1. There is an interpolation in the Latin manuscript
which is omitted in the Greek of Eusebius's record of it (Ecd. Hid. 5:8), which adds: "I
am inclined to think that this occurred through the fault of the copyists, as is wont to
happen, since numbers also are expressed by letters; so that the Greek letter which
expresses the number sixty was easily expanded into the letter Iota of the Greeks." Most
patristic scholars believe this to be added by a hand other than Irenaeus's. See Alexander
Roberts and James Donaldson, eds., The Ante-Nicene Fathers ANF, 10 vols. (Grand
Rapids: Eerdmans, late 19th c. 1975) 1:558 n. 4.
19. Henry Barclay Swete, Commentmy on Revelation (Grand Rapids: Kregel, 1906
1977), p. 175.
198 BEFORE JERUSALEM FELL
reading of Revelation was properly "666," it is remarkable that "616"
appeared in certain ancient manuscripts and traditions dating back
to the second century. The significance of this variant in the text
tradition will be dealt with shortly.
Th Meaning of 666
Perhaps in the inquiry into the significance of the cryptogram it
would be best to begin with the position the present writer deems
most compatible with the available evidence. After presenting the
case for the identification of "666," then some of the problems with
the designation will be dealt with. A compelling case can be made
that the referent of 666 is none other than the infamous tyrant Nero
Caesar. Now although the entire weight of the argument for the date
of the Revelation can not be borne by this identification alone, when
the probable identification of "666" as "Nero Caesar" is made, then
the complex of evidences considered together is seen to cohere most
impressively.
As we begin our inquiry we must bear in mind that John clearly
says "the number of the beast" is "the number of a man" (Rev.
13: 18). Thus, this beast, despite the apocalyptic imagery used to
describe him, is a man (Gk: 6v@pmw) – not an angelic or demonic
being, or a non-human creature of some sort, or an idea.20 The beast
imagery describes his cruel character, not his physical form.
As a great many scholars have come to conclude with a satisfying
degree of confidence, the name which fits the circumstances most
admirably is that of the nefarious Nero Caesar. And as noted just
above, it would not be the first time Nero was the subject of a
cryptogram. Earlier we noted a riddle based on the Greek spelling
of his name. Here we must realize that the name "Nero Caesar," if
spelled according to a Hebrew spelling (John and most first century
Christians were of Hebrew extraction),21 gives us precisely the value
20. "The number of the beast is the number of a certain man. . . . The reference is
undoubtedly to some definite historical person" (Mounce, RtwMims, p. 264). "The man
here, i.e. one of the heads of the Beast, is himself the Beast. If we discover the name of
the man it is for the time the name of the Beast. This conclusion is of paramount
importance in the interpretation of the verse as a whole" (R. H. Charles, 77u Rwslation
oJSt. John, 2 VOIS. International Critical Commentary Edinburgh: T. & T. C1ark, 1920
1:365).
21. See discussion below of the strong Hebrew element in Revelation.
The Role of Nero Caesar 199
666. An ancient Hebrew or Aramaic spelling of "Nero Caesar"
(although not the most common one), was "Nnurz Qsr," which can
be enumerated as follows:
2=50 7=200 1 = 6 2=50 ~=100 D=60 h=200
thus:
l~p 317;=666
According to Stuart, Professor Benary of Berlin noted long ago
that in the Talmud and other Rabbinical writings Nero was spelled
thus.22 In fact, "the secret i.e., the Neronic identity of the referent of
666 has been almost simultaneously rediscovered of late years by
Fritzsche in Halle, by Benary in Berlin, by Reuss in Strasbourg, and
by Hitzig in Heidelberg."23 Although it is true that "Caesar" was
often spelled in the Rabbinic literature with an additional letter ,
Hort notes that there is "excellent authority" for the precise spelling
required .24 The same observation was made by Jastrow25 and Ewald.26
Indeed, even were there no such evidence, Swete observes that
Revelation's spelling would be quite acceptable as a cipher.27 But
today hard archaeological documentary evidence for just such a
spelling of Nero's name has been found in a Murabba'at document
of the Qumran community.
It may now be pointed out that in an Aramaic document from
Murabba'at . . . , dated to the "second year of the emperor Nero,"
the name is spelled ~~~ l'lq~ as required by the theory i.e., that 666
signifies Nero. The last two consonants of 7D~ are damaged, but
enough is preserved to show that no vowel-letter was written between
the ~ and CI.Z8
22. Moses Stuart, CommentaU on the Apoca@e, 2 VOIS. (Andover Allen, Merrill, and
Wardwell, 1845) 2:457.
23. Farrar, Ear~ Ilay$, p.471 n. 4.
24. F. J. A. Hort, Thz Apoca@se ofSt. John: Z-IZI (1.ondon: Macmillan, 1908), p. xxxi.
25. Mareus Jastrow, A Dichanmy of the Targumim, the Talmud Babli and Yeru.rhalmt, and
the Mzdrashic Literature (New York: Paroles, 1950).
26. H. A. Ewald, Die Johunn. Schnjkm, 2:203 (cited in Farrar, Ear~ Days, p. 471 n. 4).
27. Swete, Revelation, p. 176.
28, D. R. Hillers, "Revelation 13:18 and A Scroll from Murabba'at," Bzdkfin of the
American Schools of Oriental Research 170 (Apr. 1963):65. The evidence can be seen by
consulting the French work edited by P, Benoit, J. T. Milik, and R. DeVaux, Dticoveties
in the Judean Desert ofJordan II (Oxford, 1961), p. 18, plate 29.
200 BEFORE JERUSALEM FELL
Although wide-ranging scholarly consensus is certainly not the
sine qwz non of truth, it should be noted that a good number of noted
scholars have accepted this identity as designating Nero. Milligan,
who considered the designation to be "impossible,"29 listed the following
scholars of his day as holding to the Nero postulate: Fritzsche,
Benary, Hitzig, Reuss, Ewald, Baur, Zeller, Hilgenfeld, Volkmar,
Hausrath, Krenkel, Gebhardt, Renan, Abbe, Reville, Sabatier,
Davidson, Stuart, Bleek, Beyschlag, Farrar, and Cowles.30 Other
scholars who have affirmed this view include: J. Stuart Russell,
Shirley Jackson Case, George Edmundson, B. W. Henderson, Arthur
S. Peake, Martin Kiddie, Charles C. Torrey, John Bright, Austin
Farrer, G. Driver, D. R. Hillers, Bo Reicke, J. P. M. Sweet, Bruce
M. Metzger, and John A. T. Robinson, to name but a few.3 Weigall
undoubtedly goes too far when he claims that "scholarship is pretty
well unanimous" on this identification.32 Henderson is a bit more fair
to the opposition when he states that the "'number of the Beast' is
now fairly generally admitted to be 666 because this = Neron kai.rar
transliterated into Hebrew. "33 In either case, Morris's statement that
of all the solutions put forward "none has won wide acceptance"34
seems quite mistaken. "The most probable view still remains that
most generally accepted, that the writer intended Nero Caesar in
Hebrew letters."35 Thus, "many are the solutions offered, some of
29. William Milligan, Di.mussion.r on the A$oca~@ (London: Macmillan, 1893), p. 115.
30. Ibid., p. 110.
31. Russell, Parowia, p, 557. Shirley Jackson Case, 7?u Revelation ~Johm: A HistQv ~
Interpretation (Chicago: University of Chicago, 1919), p. 319. George Edmundson, The
Church in Rome in the First Centu~ (London: Longman's, Green, 1913), pp, 165-166. B.
W. Henderson, Fzve Rornaz Emperors (Cambridge: University Press, 1927), p. 45. Arthur
S. Peake, The Revelation of John (London: Joseph Johnson, 1919), p. 326. Martin Kiddie,
The Revelation ~ St. John (New York: Harper, 1940), p. 261. Charles C. Torrey, T/M
Apocalypse of John (New Haven: Yale, 1958), p. 60. John Bright, 7% Kingdom ~ God
(Nashville Abingdon, 1963), p. 240. Austin Farrer, 77u Revelation of St. John the Divine
(Oxford: Clarendon, 1964), pp. 158fT. G. Driver, Tb Jud.an Scrolls (Oxford: Blackwell,
1965), p. 374. Hillers, "Revelation 13:18," p. 65. See J. P. M. Sweet, Rewlatwn. Westminster
Pelican Commentaries (Philadelphia Westminster, 1979) p. 218, note u. Bruce M.
Metzger, The Text of the New Testanwnt, 2nd ed. (Ofiord, 1968), p. 752. John A. T.
Robinson, Redating the New Testumwnt (Philadelphia: Westminster, 1976), p. 235.
32. Arthur Weigall, Nero: Emperor of Rome (London: Butterworth, 1933), p. 298.
33. B. W. Henderson, Z?ze Lz~e and Prim.@ate of the Empmor Nero (London: Methuen,
1903), p. 440. Robinson calls it "far the most widely accepted solution" (Robinson,
Redating, p. 235).
34. Leon Morns, Th Revelation of St. John (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1969), p. 174.
35. Peake, Revelation, p. 326. This conclusion was reached after twelve pages of
discussion.
T/w Role of Nero Caesar 201
them completely absurd, and none as convincing as 'Nero Caesar'. "36
It must be remembered that the referent of 666 must not only fit
the gematria valuation (as a number of names could), but it must fit
it in a relevant way. 37 We should not forget that Revelation was written
to first century Christians under severe "tribulation" (Rev. 1:9; 2:22;
6:10). Hence, Morris's objection that "the possibilities are almost
endless "38 is not really valid, for it must be that the possibilities are
to be limited to the era in which John wrote – whichever date is
chosen. The name "Nero" well meets the three fundamental criteria:
proper numerical valuation, reference to a man (Rev. 13: 18), and
contemporary relevancy.
There are several other factors that we can bring to bear that fill
out and enhance the Nero/Beast theory in a most interesting way.
These include the textual variant, as well as several incidental allusions
that minutely correspond with the Nero/Beast imagery.
The Textual Variant "616"
As mentioned previously, although the number 666 is the undeniably
certain reading of the original autograph, there is an intriguing
textual variant that appeared very early in Revelation's manuscript
history. That variant preserved the number of the Beast as "616."
There is not only some slight manuscript evidence for this variant,
but also the historical record of it in Irenaeus and the Donatist
Tyconius. 39 Upon a careful consideration of this variant, we can fairly
draw the conclusion that this variant points to Nero as well.
In the discipline of textual criticism, the critic's task is to discover
the original reading of a handwritten text by analysis of available
36. Kiddie, Revelation, p. 261.
37. One vain and amusing attempt at relevance by a futurist is found in a dispensational
work by Raymond Schafec "At all times Satan has had to have one or more
Antichrist candidates waiting in the wings, lest the Rapture come suddenly and find him
unprepared. That is why so many malevolent world leaders have had names whose
letters added up to 666 when combined in certain ways. (Depending on which 666
formula is used, at any given moment there are several hundred thousand men in the
world whose names added up to 666. It is from this large pool of candidates that Satan
has traditionally chosen his 'man of the moment')" (Schafer, Aj2eY ti Ra@re Santa
Ana, CA: Vision House, 1977, p. 55).
38. Morris, Revelation, p. 174.
39. See textual apparatus, ad. 10C., in Kurt Aland, Matthew Black, et. al, 2% Greek New
Tedamemt, 3rd ed. (London: United Bible Societies, 1975), p. 869. Also see Metzger,
Textual Commentary, pp. 751-752.
202 BEFORE JERUSALEM FELL
copies of that text. The critic often is forced to do so on the basis of
various probability factors presented by the whole array of manuscript
evidence. Textual variants necessarily fall into two broad
groups: those that arise by accident and those that arise by intention.
w There are various ways by which aaidental uananti can mar the
text. There are errors of sight, caused by a confusion of similarly
drawn letters; errors of writing, where a scribe inadvertently writes
one letter for another; errors of hearing (especially when a text is
being dictated to copyists) due to the similarity of sounds between
certain letters, diphthongs, etc.; and errors of judgment, where, for
example, an abbreviated word might have been put into the wrong
unabbreviated form. Intentional uanants can occur for any number of
reasons and these reasons are more diflicult to discern But "for the
most part" they are derived "from attempts by scribes to improve the
text in various ways."41
The two leading options before the textual critic42 in the present
instance are 666 and 616. In the earlier extant manuscripts the
number is written out in words that are quite different: "six hundreds
and sixty-six" is written: t~amkzol 2~@ona & %x hundreds and
sixteen" is written: kfamhol &za .4~. Or, as in some of the later
manuscripts — and almost certainly in the original — the variant
numbers are written thus: 666 appears as ~$q and 616 appears as
w<. The letters in question are ~ (60) and I (10). Immediately the
Greek student recognizes the difficulty of an accidental confusion
accounting for the divergence. It is diilicult to see how an error of
sight, sound, writing, or judgment could explain the variant; the
letters are as different in style, size, and sound as any two Greek
letters could be.43 Obviously the variant is of the intentional class.
But why?
Although such a problem is necessarily difficult to trace down, a
strong case can be made for an early copyist's intentionally altering
the number in order to make the discerning of the referent easier. If
40. J. Harold Greenlee, Zntroa%ction to New Testam TextuQl Criticiwn (Grand Rapids:
Eerdmans, 1964), p. 63.
41. Ibid., p. 66.
42. There is one other extremely improbable variant: 606. See Ford, Revelation, p.
226, and the textual apparatus of Aland, et. al., Greek New T~tatrwnt, p. 869.
43. Eberhard Nestle, Zntroa!wtion to the Textwd Critictrm of the Greek New Tutatwnt, trans.
William Edie (London: William and Norgate, 1901 ), p. 334. Cf Swete, Rewlation, p. 175.
Th Role of Nero Caesar 203
the Beast's number in the unadulterated text does refer to Nero
Caesar (as seems evident from the evidence cited above); and if this
fact would be recognizable with a degree of effort by the original
recipients of the letter (as should be most likely if Revelation was
written to be understood by, rather than to taunt, the persecuted
recipients); then it should be no mere coincidence that 616 is the
numerical value of "Nero Caesar" when spelled in Hebrew by transliterating
it from its Latin spelling. This would seem satisfactorily to
explain the rationale for the divergence: so that the non-Hebrew
mind might more readily discern the identity of the Beast. Even
G~thrie, who rejects the Nero theory, grants that this variant gives
the designation Nero "a distinct advantage."w As Metzger writes:
"Perhaps the change was intentional, seeing that the Greek form
Neron Caesar written in Hebrew characters IDP 1112 is equivalent
to 666, whereas the Latin form Nero Caesar >Dp 172 is equivalent
to 616."45 Thus, rather than either being inconsequential to or overthrowing
the Nero theory of 666, the textual variant provides a
remarkable confirmation of the theory.
Objections to the Nero Theory
Despite the above evidences, the arguments have not convinced
all New Testament scholars.w A variety of objections is put forward
by dissenters from the Nero theory. Before moving on to other brief
allusions to Nero as the Beast in Revelation, some of the leading
objections will be given due consideration. These will be stated first,
then returned to subsequently for a seriatim analysis.
(1) The earliest fathers were unaware of this designation, as
indicated particularly in that Irenaeus knew nothing of the Nero
theory, even with the 616 vanant. As Morris puts it: Irenaeus does
not "even include Nero in his list, let alone regard this as a likely
conjecture. "47 In addition, Morris notes: "It is also to be borne in
mind that in the ancient world when Nero was a considerable fig-
44. Donald Guthrie, New Testament Mmriuction, 3rd ed. (Downers Grove, IL: Inter-
Varsity Press, 1970), p. 959.
45. Metzger, Textual Commentay, p. 752.
46. Indeed, some, such as Mounce (Revelation, p. 264), are convinced on the basis of
the long standing debate that we cannot know the answer.
47. Morris, Revelation, p. 38.
204 BEFORE JERUSALEM FELL
ure . . . this solution was apparently never thought of"48
(2) The designation of 666 as a particular, historical individual
misses John's point, according to some. "Merely to count up the
numerical value of the figures obtained from Nero Caesar would not
have answered the Apostle's purpose, and could never have filled his
mind with the awe that is upon him in this verse."49 Morris concurs
with his generic, rather than specific, designate. He writes, "It is
possible that such solutions are on the wrong lines and that we should
understand the expression purely in terms of the symbolism of numhers."
5° He sees the number 666 as falling short of the number of
Jesus' name (which carries the value of 888) and of the number of
pefiection (777). Thus, the number represents that "civilization without
Christ is necessarily under the dominion of the evil one. "5'
Hendnksen and Torrance agree with Morris's main point.52 In essence,
these scholars view the number as more symbolic that cryptogrammic.
(3) In that John writes to a Gentile church using the Greek
language, we should not expect that a Hebrew form of the name was
intended. According to Ladd: "No one has explained why John,
writing to a Greek-reading public, would have used the elaborate
symbolism of gematria with a Hebrew instead of a Greek form of the
name. "53 Richardson, Morris, Guthrie, Mounce and others concur
with Ladd.54
These, then, are the leading objections to the Nero theory regarding
the meaning of 666. Nevertheless, despite their being advanced
by numerous fine scholars, these difficulties are not insuperable. A
brief rebuttal to them will suffice to enhance the positive evidence in
the theory's favor outlined above.
48. Ibid., p. 174. Cp. Mounce, Revelation, p. 265; Guthrie, Introduction, p, 959.
49. Milligan, Discussions, p. 120.
50. Morris, Rsvdation, p. 174.
51. Ibid.
52. William Hendriksen, More Than Conquerors (Grand Rapids: Baker, 1967), p. 182.
Thomas F. Torrance, ?% Apoca@e Todg (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1959), p, 86.
53. George E1don Ladd, A ComnwntaT on the Rmelation of Jotm (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans,
1972), p. 186.
54. Donald W. Richardson, The Revelation of Jesus Christ (Richmond: John Knox,
1939 1964), pp. 84-86; Morris, Revelation, p. 174; Guthrie, Zrzt,oduction, p. 959; Mounce,
Revelation, p. 265.
The Role of Nero Caesar 205
The Early Fathers
The first objection proffered above is one of the two strongest
(the third being the other weighty one). It would seem most reasonable
to expect that since Irenaeus wrote within about one hundred
years of Revelation, he likely would have heard of the proper view.
At the very least, we would think, Irenaeus would recognize the true
view, though growing indistinct, as a theory to be given equal footing
with the solutions he does proffer. But, as a matter of fact, in his
lengthy treatment of the gematria in Against Heresies 5:28-30 (especially
chapter 30), he provides at least three possible interpretations
– and Nero's name is conspicuously absent. Furthermore, no
early Church father suggests Nero's name as the proper designation
of 666, even though various suggestions were given by such men as
Irenaeus, Andreas of Caesarea, Victorious, Hippolytus, Clement of
Alexandria, and others. Surely this is a potent objection for the
twentieth century interpreter.55 Even this objection, however, strong
as it is, is not fatal to the theory, and that on the following grounds:
First, the very fact that Irenaeus, writing just one hundred years
after Revelation, cannot be sure of the proper designation demonstrates
that the true interpretation, whatever it was, very quickly had
been lost. If this is true of Irenaeus in A.D. 180, it is certainly true
of the later fathers. Mounce suggests that "John intended only his
intimate associates to be able to decipher the number. So successful
were his precautions that even Irenaeus some one hundred years later
was unable to identifj the person intended. "56 Had Irenaeus offered
with conviction and assurance a specific alternative, the case against
the Nero theory would have been more seriously challenged. Interestingly,
Irenaeus suggests the hopelessness of determining the proper
understanding: "It is therefore more certain, and less hazardous, to
await the fulfillment of the prophecy, than to be making surmises,
and casting about for any names that may present themselves, inasmuch
as many names can be found possessing the number mentioned;
and the same questions will, after all, remain unsolved. "57
55. Although it should not go unnoticed that the views of Irenaeus and others are not
adopted by modern mmmentators anyway.
56. Mounce, Revelation, p. 265. Interestingly, this is somewhat inimical to Mounce's
premillennialism, Are we to believe that John told the first century church the name of
a twentieth or twenty-first century man?
57. Agaimt Heresies 5:30:3.
206 BEFORE JERUSALEM FELL
Still further in this same section he writes: "We will not, however,
incur the risk of pronouncing positively as to the name of Antichrist;
for if it were necessary that his name should be distinctly revealed in
this present time, it would have been announced by him who beheld
the apocalyptic vision."
Irtmaeu-s admits hi-s own ignorance on the matta-. How can that prove
the Nero theory wrong? It simply proves what is obvious: Very early
in Revelation's history, the key was lost. It does not follow that it
could not have indicated Nero Caesar, or that it could never be found
again.
Second, while indicating his ignorance of any assured tradition
on the matter, Irenaeus puts forward three possible solutions, out of
the man~8 that floated around in his era: "Euanthus" (which he does
not develop and which is not understandable today), "Lateinos" (which
he thinks possible, and that indicates the Roman empire), and " Teitan"
(which he thinks "has a strong degree of probability and is an ancient
name"). These are probably "Irenaeus's guesses (for they are obviously
no more). "59
Nevertheless, it is at least interesting that two of these (we know
not what Euant/uu means) are quite compatible with the Nero designation.
The name "Lateino~," which signifies the Roman Empire,
could well involve the Empire's head at the particular time. And if
Nero were emperor when John wrote Revelation, then it would
signifi Nero. The interchangeability of the idea of the "Beast" and
one of its "heads" in Revelation 13 is a well-known phenomenon. GO
Sometimes the Beast is generic (representing the evil kingdom and
having seven heads); sometimes it is specific (representing an evil
person as one of the heads). This phenomenon may historically
explain the early "La.teino.?' theory, which was also held by Hippolytus
in his Treatise on Chri~t ano! Antichtit.61 "Nero" would be the
specific and "Lateinos" the generic form.
The name "Teitun," as Irenaeus recognizes (even with a deviant
spelling), is also a name for the sun god: "Among many persons,
too, this name is accounted divine, so that even the sun is termed
58. "It is not through a want of names containing the number of that name that I say
this" (5:30:3).
59. Swete, Revelation, p. 175.
60. Charles, Revelation 1:365. See Chap. 18 below.
61. Hippolytus, Treatise on Chrz.d and Antichrist 49.
I'%e Role ofNero Caesar 207
'Titan' by those who do now possess the rule ."62 The Roman
writers Cicero and Ovid have been produced as evidence of the sun's
being called "Titan"63 among the Remans. Remarkably Nero was
widely known to have adopted the attributes of the sun deity as his
own.
Tkan was one of the old poetic names of the Sun, and the Sun was
the deity whose attributes Nero most affected, as all the world was
able to judge from seeing his colossus with radiated head, of which
the substructure of the base still remains close by the ruins of the
Colosseum. The mob which greeted him with shouts of 'Nero-Apollo!'
were well aware that he had a predilection for this title.G4
It seems that Irenaeus at least may have been on the right path.
Third, there is the possibility that Irenaeus did not record the
Nero theory because of his predisposition to a futuristic interpretation
of Revelation generated by his premillennialism. With such a predilection
for futurism, he may not have deemed the Nero view worthy
of mentioning. He does seem a little perturbed that some have the
variant number in their texts and use it to offer various suggested
names: "But as for those who, for the sake of vainglory, lay it down
for certain that names containing the spurious number are to be
accepted, and aflh-m that this name, hit upon by themselves, is that
of him who is to come; such persons shall not come forth without loss,
because they have led into error both themselves and those who
confided in them. "65 Could he have been just as disturbed by those
who suggested that the correct number indicated a name of the past,
and not of the future? He does give much attention to the future
coming and kingdom of Christ, and makes great use of Revelation
in that discussion.GG He insists that "in a still clearer light has John,
in the Apocalypse, indicted to the Lord's disciples what shall happen
in the last times. "67 He says that John only "indicates the number of
the name now, that zohen this man comes we may avoid him, being
62. Against Heresiss 5:30:5. Victorious also records this view, Apoca@e 13.
63. Note by W. H. Rambaut, translator, in ANF 1:559.
64. Farrar, Ear~ Days, p. 470. See also Seneca's reference to Nero in terms of Apollo
in Ethelbert Stauffer, Christ and the Co.zsars: Histon"cal Sketdz.n, 3rd cd., trans. K. and R.
Gregor Smith (Philadelphia: Westminster, 1955), p. 52.
65. Against Heresies 5:30:1.
66. Ibid. 5:25-35.
67. Ibid. 5:26:1
208 BEFORE JERUSALEM FELL
aware who he is."G8 Although he admits there were many names
being suggested (5:30:3), he only cites three. Obviously he left out
the ones he personally felt least credible – perhaps even on (misguided)
theological grounds.
Mtising tlz Point
The second objection – that seeking a definite, historical individual
misses John's point – is widely held. Yet this objection itself
seems to miss a vital point, and runs into more difficulties than it
solves.
In the first place – and this is the really critical deficiency of the
objection — this view denies what John expressly afilrms. It is quite
clear that John carefully cues the reader to the fact that the number
is the number "of a man." Had John not given the cue as he did, the
wholly symbolic approach would be on an equal footing with the
cryptogrammic approach.
Second, turning back to ecclesiastical tradition, as the late date
advocates are wont to do, we must ask about Irenaeus's (and others)
attempts to specifj a name for the Beast. There was a diligent effort
to do so. It seemed obvious to the early Church that a specific name
was involved. And what of the reference in Revelation 13:17 to "the
number of the name (ZOO dv6~cr~og)"? A specific name (hence, the
definite article ZOU) is clearly expected in the text.
Furthermore, why do the symbolic requirements demand three
sixes, as in 666? With the common number seven so current in
Revelation, why was not the number of the Beast, if wholly symbolic,
simply a lone 6? Or why not 66? Or 6666? And if wholly symbolic,
how could the number have been corrupted to 616 before Irenaeus's
time? Such a corruption would destroy the symbolic function, and
that extremely early in its history.
Third, how is it that settling upon Nero's name as a specific
individual destroys the symbolism? Could not the name be both a
cryptogram and a symbol, by God's providence? In Sibylline Oracles
1:328-329 Jesus' name is signified by 888. This definitely specifies an
individual, while at the same time serving a symbolic function. It is
quite ironic that while seeking to establish the pure-symbolic designation
of 666, Morris points out that: "If we take the sum of the values
68. Ibid. 5:30:3.
Th Role of Nero Caesar 209
represented by the letters of the name Iesous, the Greek name 'Jesus',
it comes to 888. Each digit is one more than seven, the petiect
number. But 666 yields the opposite phenomenon, for each digit falls
short. The number may be meant to indicate not an individual, but
a persistent falling short. "69 He knows that Jesus is an historic
individual and that His name is symbolic, too. Does not Nero become
typical of the antichrist in Christian history, largely due to his being
the first of the secular persecutors of Christianity? Though he is a
specific individual, he also becomes a symbol of Rome's persecuting
wrath, as in the Ascension of Isaiah 4:1 ff. and the Sibylline Oracles
8:65ff. Bo Reicke even suggests that 666 became a political slogan
used for the cruel and tyrannical persecution introduced by Nero.'"
The Hebrew Spelling Problem
The third objection to the Nero referent is that Nero's name is
precluded on the grounds that (a) John writes to Gentile churches,
which suggests the need for using Greek letters, and (b) the process
of the deriving of the name "Nero" from "666" requires too many
elaborate intricacies. This is the second most substantial argument
against the Nero theory. Careful reflection upon this objection, however,
dispels its force, especially when we consider it in the light of
the positive evidence set forth heretofore in its favor.
First, although John wrote in Greek, Revelation has long been
recognized as one of the more "Jewish" books of the New Testament.
"More than any other book in the New Testament, the Apocalypse
of John shows a Jewish cast. '"l Indeed, one of the arguments that
historically has been granted the most weight for its early date (as
per Westcott and Hort) is that its language is so intensely Hebraic
in comparison to the Gospel's smoother Greek. Harendberg, Bolton,
Torrey, and others suggest an Aramaic original for Revelation because
of this .72 In Charles's introduction to Revelation, he included
69. Morris, Revelation, p. 174.
70. See reference in Sweet, Rsuelation, p. 218n.
71. Gustav Kruger, HistoT of Ear~ Chtitim Literature in the First 7?wee Csnturies, trans.
C. R. GNett (London: Macmillan, 1897), p. 35.
72. See diseussion in Bernhard Weiss, A Manual of Introdadwn tu t/w Nezo Testamsnt,
vol. 2, trans. A. J. K. Davidson (New York: Funk and Wagnalls, 1889) p. 75; Torrey,
Apoca@e, pp. x, 27-58; Werner Georg Kiimmel, Introduction to the New 72stamtmt, 17th
ed., trans. Howard C. Kee (Nashville Abingdon, 1973), p. 465; J. Schmid, in Thologih
Raw.e 62 (1966): 306.
210 BEFORE JERUSALEM FELL
a major section entitled "A Short Grammar of the Apocalypse."
Section 10 of this "Grammar" is entitled "The Hebraic Style of the
Apocalypse."73 There Charles well notes that "while John writes in
Greek, he thinks in Hebrezo."74 As Sweet puts it: "The probability is that
the writer, thinking in Hebrew or Aramaic, consciously or unconsciously
carried over semitic idioms into his Greek, and that his
'howlers' are deliberate attempts to reproduce the grammar of classical
Hebrew at certain points. "75 Indeed, its very frequent Jewish
sound is a major factor – although unnecessarily so – in the form
critical analyses of the book (as per Moffatt and Charles).
What is more, other names in Revelation are, as a matter of fact,
very Hebraic. For instance, the words "Abaddon" (Rev. 9:11) and
"Armageddon" (Rev. 16: 16) are carefully given Greek equivalents;
"Satan" is said to be "the devil" (Rev. 12:9).76 How natural, it would
seem, to adopt a Hebraic spelling for the basis of the cryptogram.
Furthermore, there are a number of examples in the New Testament
of the Greek spelling of Hebrew names. For example, an
illustration from Mark might prove helpful. Mark is generally considered
to be a Gentile gospel, by conservatives and liberals. Some even
suggest Mark's readers dwelt in Rome. 77 Nevertheless, in Mark 3:18
Simon "the Kananaios" (or Zealot) has a name that would be
dificult to interpret by Gentiles. The dificulty is interesting: "Now,
as we have seen, the word kananaios is a Greek transliteration of the
Aramaic qan'ana', meaning 'Zealot'."78 This shifting back and forth
73. Charles, Reudation, 1: cxvii, cxlii. BeckWith agreed that John was "a writer, whose
mode of thought and native speech are Hebraic" (Ishon T. BeckWith, 77u Apocu@e oj
John: Studirs in Introduction Grand Rapids: Baker, (1917) 1967, p. 355).
74. Charles, Redation, p. cxliii.
75. Sweet, Revelation, p. 16.
76. Other Hebrew words appear, as well: "amen" is said to mean "truthfully" (Rev.
3:14) and the Hebrew "hallelujah" is not even translated into a Greek equivalent (Rev.
19:1,3,4, 6).
77. Guthrie, Introduction, p. 59. See also S. G. F. Brandon, Ttw Fall of Jerwakm and t/u
Chrartian Church: A StuajI of ttu Ef@ct.r of the Jewish Overthrow of A.D. 70 on Chri.rtimi~
(London: SPCK, 1957), chap. 10; S. G. F. Brandon, Jesu.r ad the Zealo.k A Stiy of the
Political Factor in Primitive Christianip (New York Scribners, 1967), pp. 242tZ; Vincent
Taylor, 7?u Gospel Acwrding to St. Mark. Macmillan New Testament Commentaries
(London Macmillan, 1953), pp. 32ff., 335; Robert H. Gundry, A Su~ of the New
Testament (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1970), pp. 81ff.; H. G. Wood, Jesus in th Twentidh
Century (London: 1960), pp. 25tT Kiimmel disagrees with the Roman destination, but
accepts the fact of its Gentile audience (Kiimmel, Introduction, p. 98).
78. Brandon, Jew and tb Z%rM.r, p. 244. In support of his view he cites E. KlosterTb
Role of Nero Caaar 211
between languages is exactly parallel to the gematria problem in
Revelation 13.
Third, as a matter of fact, Asia Minor was well populated by
Jews. "Long before the Christian era the Jews had formed a considerable
factor in the population of the Asian cities. "79 A number of
scholars, including Ramsay and Walker, agree.w
More broadly, we should note that the Jewish presence was felt
throughout the Roman Empire. "The Jews, since the Babylonish
captivity, had been scattered over all the world. They were as ubiquitous
in the Roman empire in the first century as they are now
throughout Christendom. According to Josephus and Strabo, there
was no country where they did not make up a part of the population.
"81 In fact, "in the times of Augustus, the Greek historian and
geographer Strabo (quoted in Josephus, JunM Antiquities 14.115)
could write that in the entire inhabited world there was hardly a place
where the power of the Jews had not made itself felt. "82 Because of
the first century Diaspora a "great Jewish world . . . had grown up
around Palestine, a world that reached out into all the known lands. "83
mann (Das Markusevangelium, 2nd ed. 1926, p. 35); E. Schiirer ( Geshichte des jiidtichen
Vofkes irn Zeitcdter Jew Chrhti, 4th ed. Leipzig 1901 1:486; G. Dalman (Jesu-Jeshua, trans.
P. P. Levertoff London: 1922, p. 12); Eisler (ZESO US BASZLEUS, 2:68); Joseph Klausner
(Jesw of N~areth London: Allen and Unwin: 1925, p. 254); Vincent Taylor (Mark,
p. 234) and M. Hengel (Dti Zefoton, pp. 72-73).
79. Swete, Revelation, p. lxvi. Here he makes reference to Phiio, Legatio ad Cg"um 33 and
Contra Fhmm 7.
80. William M. Ramsay, The Letters to kSezwz Charches (Grand Rapids: Baker, 1904
1963), chap. 12. Williston Walker, A Hktoy of the Christian Church, 3rd ed. (New York:
Scribners, 1970), p. 16, writes of the Jews in the first century: "They were a notable
part of the population of Alexandria. They were strongly rooted in Syria and Asia
Mhor. . . . Few cities of the empire were without their presence."
81. Philip Schaff, His.kwy of the Christiaa Church, 8 VOIS. (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans,
1910 1950) 1:85. Josephus's statements are found in Josephus's Wars 3:3 and Antiquities
147:2.
82. H. H. Ben-Sasson, cd., A Histoy of the Jewish People (Cambridge: Harvard, 1976),
p. 277. In this work much attention is given on the influence of the Jews on the Roman
Empire: "In the Second Temple era, the Jewish faith expanded as it never had before
and never has since. Throughout the Roman Empire and even beyond it, people adopted
the Jewish faith or at least part of the Jewish way of life" (p. 288). See Josephus, Agatrzd
Apion 2:282ff. Note the complaint of the Roman writers about the Jewish influences
Tacitus, Histories 5:5; Juvenal, Fourk-enth Satire 11 :96ff.
83. Rufus Learsi, Israel: A Histoy of the Jiwish People (New York: World, 1949), p.
166. See also: Si/ylline Oracles 3:27 lfl
212 BEFORE JERUSALEM FELL
The audience then could well be composed of at least a significant
minority of Jews. And why not? Was not John himself a Jew? Was
not he, the writer of Revelation, sent "to the circumcised" (Gal. 2:9)?
Despite the brevity of each of the Seven Letters, in them are prominent
allusions to Jewish situations (Rev. 2:9, 14; 3:9) .W In the book
itself are very definite allusions to Jewish matters, such as the twelve
tribes of Israel (Rev. 7 and 14).
Incidental Allusions to Nero
In the very chapter in which the gematria is embedded –
Revelation 13 – there are subtle indicators of personal features that
suggestively enhance the designation of Nero as the figure behind the
gematria. The correspondences, though admittedly subtle, are suggestive
enough to discourage any hasty dismissal of them as merely
coincidental. These insights, though subsidiary to the main argument,
lend additional weight to the major supportive evidence. These
subtle indicators are brought into our argument late in order simply
to fill out the picture presented; they are not individually substantial.
The Character of the Beast
First, as indicated much earlier in our research, the character of
the beast befits Nero's character.85 Here in Revelation 13 the one
behind the gematria is called a "beast." The word for "beast" in
Greek (&@ov) is a term frequently used of "wild animals," of
"dangerous animals. "% @q@ov is often used of the wild, carnivorous
animals employed in the cruel Roman arenas. 87 Although the idea
of wildness in the meaning may be emphasized by modification with
the adjective KCZK6g (as in Tit. 1:12), Foerster observes that "the
original sense of 8q@ov maintains such vitality that even in the
84. See Chap. 13.
85. Of course, it is true that there is a discernible shifting between a specific (an
individual) and a generic (a kingdom) referent. Thus, there will be some overlapping.
86. W. F. Arndt and F. W. Gingrich, eds., A Greek-Englirh Lexicon of the New Testamemt
and Othr Eurty Chtitian Lhrature, 4th ed. (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1957),
p. 361. In Lev. 26:6 the beats of the land are symbolic of evil; in Lev. 26:22 God promises
their return to plague Israel and to bereave her of her children if she is unfaithful to the
covenant. Messianic blessedness vanquishes the evil beasts (Isa. 11:6 -9; Eze. 3425).
87. Josephus, Wars 7:38; Ma@rdom of Po~carp 2:% 3E.; 11:1 K.; Ignatius, Roman.s 4 lff.,
5:3, Snyrnam.s 4:2, Dwgndw 7:7; Hermas, Vi.siom 3:2:1.
The Role of Nero Caaar 213
Hellenistic period no addition is needed to convey the sense of a
wild animal to readers. "88 The context of its occurrence in Revelation
13 certainly speaks of a most ferocious creature: "And I saw a beast
coming up out of the sea, having ten horns and seven heads. . . .
And the beast which I saw was like a leopard, and his feet were like
those of a bear, and his mouth like the mouth of a lion" (Rev.
13: lb-2a). Because of its natural association, the term is often quite
aptly used figuratively of persons with "a 'bestial' nature, beast, monster."
89
Now it is almost universally agreed that Nero was one who was
possessed of a "bestial nature."g" Nero often acted in "horrible viciousness
as regards men and women. "91 According to Suetonius,
Nero "compelled four hundred senators and six hundred Roman
knights, some of whom were well to do and of unblemished reputation,
to fight in the arena."gz He was a sodomist (Nero 28) who is said
to have castrated a boy named Sporus and married him (Nero 28,
29). He enjoyed homosexual rape (Nero 28) and torture (Nero 29).
He killed his parents, brother, wife, aunt, and many others close to
him (Nero 33-35). He even "so prostituted his own chastity that after
defiling almost every part of his body, he at last devised a kind of
game, in which, covered with the skin of some wild animal, he was
let loose from a cage and attacked the private parts of men and
women, who were bound to stakes" (Nero 29).
More particularly for Revelation's purpose, Nero was the first of
the imperial authorities to persecute Christianity, and that with the
vilest evil and most horrendous fury. Tacitus records the scene in
Rome when the persecution of Christians broke out:
So, to dispel the report, Nero substituted as the guilty persons and
inflicted unheard-of punishments on those who, detested for their
abominable crimes, were vulgarly called Christians. . . . And their
death was aggravated with mockeries, insomuch that, wrapped in the
88. Werner Foerster, "Oqp{ov," TDNT 3:134.
89. Arndt and Gingrich, Lexicon, p. 361. See their references: Aristophanes, Equitss
273, Plutru 439, Nubes 184; Appian; Alciphron 2:17; Achilles Tatius 6:12:3; Josephus,
Wars 1:624, 627; Antiquities 17: 117; 120; Vettius Valens 78:9; Philo, Comeming Abraham 33.
90. An almost solitary defender of Nero suggests he was a victim of bad publicity. See
Weigall, Nero.
91. Henderson, Nero, p. 415.
92. Nero 12.
214 BEFORE JERUSALEM FELL
hides of wild beasts, they were torn to pieces by dogs, or fastened to
crosses to be set on fire, that when the darkness fell they might be
burned to illuminate the night. . . . Whence it came about that,
though the victims were guilty and deserved the most exemplary
punishment, a sense of pity was aroused by the feeling that they were
sacrificed not on the altar of public interest, but to satis~ the cruelty
of one man.g3
Apollonius of Tyana (b. 4 B. C.) specifically called Nero a "beast":
"In my travels, which have been wider than ever man yet accomplished,
I have seen many, many wild beasts of Arabia and India;
but this beast, that is commonly called a Tyrant, I know not how
many heads it has, nor if it be crooked of claw, and armed with
horrible fangs. . . . And of wild beasts you cannot say that they
were ever known to eat their own mother, but Nero has gorged
himself on this diet."w It is important to understand that "the context
shows that he is thinking of a beast of prey with claws and teeth, a
carnivorous animal, like a lion or panther."95 In Sibylline oracles
8:157 (dated about A.D. 175)96 Nero is fearfully designated a "great
beast" (@@ ~fyag). In this section of the Oracles we read "then
dark blood will pursue the great beast."97
Lactantius, speaks of him as "an execrable and pernicious tyrant"
and a "noxious wild beast. "98 Eusebius writes of him as one
possessed of "extraordinary madness, under the influence of which,
he . . . accomplished the destruction of so many myriads without
any reason."gg Henderson records the assessments of several scholars
regarding Nero's, character: Diderot and Marivale call him "the
Monster." '00 Renan speaks of him as "the first in that long line of
monsters." Duruy claims he "has no equal in history, to whom no
analogy may be found save in the pathological annals of the scaffold. "
De Quincey calls him "Nero the Arch Tyrant." Menvale and Beule
state that he "was the last and most detestable of the Caesarean
93. Annals 15:44.
94. Philostratus, Lt@2 of Apollonius 438.
95. Foerster, "eqpiov," TDNT 3:134.
96. Collins, "Sibylline Oracles," OTP 1:416.
97. This reference is clearly speaking of Nero as has been noted by Collins, "Sibylline
Oracles," OTP 1:421, and Foerster, "f3q@ov," TDNT 3:134.
98. Lactantius, Of the Manrwr m Which the Pememtors Dud 3 (see ANF 7:302).
99. Eusebius, Ecclesiastical HistoV 2:25:2.
100. Hendemon, Nero, p. 13.
Th Role of Nero Caesar 215
family." Clearly Nero fits the bill of the beast. He was a destructive
"beast" of the worst and most horrible sort – far worse than the
paranoid Domitian.
At this juncture we must consider the fact that, according to
Revelation 13:10, the "beast" is alive while Revelation is being written.
This precludes any figure beyond the date of the writing of
Revelation, which at the latest is 95-96. Nero's name is most appropriate
in this connection.
Tb Serpent
Second, there seems to be a subtle indication that the one designated
"666" is somehow serpent-like. Not only is Satan himself called
a "serpent" in Revelation (Rev. 20:2), but his cohort, the Beast, is
so designated. The sound of the number 666 even in English sounds
hauntingly like a serpent's chilling hiss. In the Greek the situation is
the same. The three letters serving as the number are: x~q. Phonetically
their eerie sound is that of a serpent's hiss. What is more, the
middle number-letter even has the appearance of writhing serpenh
~olol
What is interesting in this regard is the apparently well-known
relationship of Nero with a serpent. According to Suetonius, at about
the age of three while Nero was napping,
would-be assassins were frightened away be a snake which darted out
from under his pillow. The only foundation for this tale was, that there
was found in his bed near the pillow the slough of a serpent; but
nevertheless at his mother's desire he had the skin enclosed in a
golden bracelet, and wore it for a long time on his left arm. But when
at last the memory of his mother grew hateful to him, he threw it
away, and afterwards in the time of his extremity sought it again in
vain.1°2
Tacitus mentions the discovery of a serpent in Nero's crib.103 In Die's
work we read: "As time went on, the finding of a serpent's skin
around Nero's neck while he was still a child caused the seers to
declare that he should receive great power from an old man; for
serpents are supposed to slough off their old age by discarding their
101. Farrar, Ear~ Days, p. 470.
102. Nero 6:4.
103. Annah 11:11.
216 BEFORE JERUSALEM FELL
old skin. "lw Weigall expands on this episode and notes Agrippina's
(Nero's mother) superstition in this regard:
One day when Nero was asleep, in his cot, an attempt to strangle him
was made by some men, apparendy in the pay of the Empress, who
had concealed themselves near by; but the approach of his mother
frightened them, and they decamped. It was then discovered that an
old snake-skin had been placed under the boy's pillow, probably by
his nurse, as a magical protection against harm; and Agrippina was
superstitious enough to attribute his escape to the power of this
charm.
But a snake-skin had also another occult quality, according to the
folk-lore of the time – namely, that of bestowing upon its possessor
great honour through the medium of an elderly man, this fancy
having its origin in the belief that an old snake renewed its strength
and youth by shedding its skin.
Agrippina therdore took cotiort in the thought that her boy was
evidently going to be honoured in the future by the already rniddleaged
Claudius; and she caused the snake-skin to be made into a
bracelet which she obliged Nero always to wear. 105
Obviously the use of such a snake-charm by Nero was wellknown;
it appears in ancient history books dating more than a
half-century later. This Nero-serpent connection also occurs in the
Sibylline Oracles Book 5 (dated before A.D. 132) lW:
One who has fif~ as an initial will be commander, a terrible snake,
breathing out grievous war, who one day will lay hands on his own
family and slay them.107
Collins's note on this Sibylline verse is of interest: "The fact that
Nero is called a snake maybe influenced by the story that a serpent
was found around his neck when he was an infant (Tacitus, Annals
11:11 ).''1O8
Admittedly, the connection is not the strongest; it could never
serve alone as proof Nevertheless, here, at least, is a quite suggestive
correspondence in a most unusual detail of Nero's life.
104. Roman Hist~ 61:2:4.
105. Weigsll, Nero, pp. 43-44.
106. Collins, "Sibylline Oracles," OTP 1:390.
107. Sib@line Oro&s 5:28-30; OTP 1:393.
108. Collins, "Sibylline Oracles," OTP 1:393,
The Role of Nero Caesar 217
The Beast's Red Color
The red color of the beast (Rev. 17:3) may also point to Nero.
Certainly the colors of the harlot's garments (Rev. 17:4) seem to be
colors appropriate for either of the two leading interpretations as to
her identity. If she represents imperial Rome the scarlet and purple
well suggest the colors of the robes of the emperor. If she is representative
of Jerusalem, the colors reflect the colors of the high priest's
garments and of the temple's curtains. It would seem most appropriate
to expect the red color of the beast to also correspond to the
person designated as the beast whose number is 666.
It is true, of course, that the red color may be indicative of the
bloodshed caused by the beast. This possibility readily suggests itself
to even the casual reader (cp. Rev. 6:4). Nevertheless, Weigall pointed
to another potential rationale for the red color: Nero's red beard. lm
Suetonius writes of the legend associated with Nero's ancestral parentage,
which "explains" why he had a red beard:
Of the Domitian family two branches have acquired distinction, the
Calvini and the Ahenobarbi.l 10 The latter have as the founder of their
race and the origin of their surname Lucius Domitius, to whom, as
he was returning from the country, there once appeared twin youths
of more than mortal majesty, so it is said, and bade him carry to the
senate and people the news of a victory, which was as yet unknown.
And as a token of their divinity it is said that they stroked his cheeks
and turned his black beard to a ruddy hue, like that of bronze. This
sign was perpetuated in his descendants, a great part of whom had
red beards. 111
Obviously Nero's red beard (which he wore for a time) was noteworthy,
for here is a legend created in explanation of it. The red color of
the beast of Revelation serves nicely as an identifier.
The Beast's Death
The manner of Nero's death corresponds with the prophecy of
Revelation 13:10, 14:
If anyone is destined for captivity, to captivity he goes; if any one kills
with the sword, with the sword he must be killed. Here is the persever-
109. Weigall, Nero, p. 299.
110. "Ahenobarbus" means "red beard." See Weigall, Nero, p. 25.
111. Suetonius, Nero 1:1,
218 BEFORE JERUSALEM FELL
anceand the faith of the saints (Rev. 13:10).
And he deceives those who dwell on the earth because of the signs
which it was given him to perform in the presence of the beast telling
those who dwell on the earth to make an image to the beast who had
the wound of the sword and has come to life (Rev. 13:14).
In the context of speaking of the beast, John gives encouragement to
those whom the beast was presently afflicting:"2 "Here is the perseverance
and the ftith of the saints, " i.e., that the beast who slays by
the sword would also be slain by the sword.
That Nero did in fact kill by the sword (and by many other
means) is well-attested fact. Paul, for example, is said to have died
under Nero by decapitation by means of the sword.113 Tertullian
credits "Nero's cruel sword" as providing the martyr's blood as seed
for the church. 1'4 Just as well-attested is the fact of Nero's own death
by sword. According to Suetonius, he "drove a dagger into his throat,
aided by Epaphroditus, his private secretary."'15 He not only killed
others by the sword, but himself as Revelation mentions.
Again, this evidence alone cannot compel the conclusion that
Nero is in mind; many emperors died by the sword, even Domitian.
But it quite harmoniously lends its voice to the chorus of other
evidences, both major and minor.
Conclusion
The role of Nero Caesar in Revelation is written large. As all
roads lead to Rome, so do they all terminate at Nero Caesar's palace.
The factors pointing to Nero in Revelation are numerous and varied,
including even intricate and subtle minutiae. It is difficult to discount
the many ways in which Nero fits the expectations of Revelation. He
is the only contemporary historical figure that can possibly fulfill all
of the requirements. Contrary to Swete, Mounce, and others who
fear that the key to Revelation's "666" is lost, we suggest that the key
is actually in the keyhole.
112. John himself currently was exiled to Patmos while under "the tribulation" (Rw.
1 :9). The beast was destined to die in the future (Rev. 13:10): "he must be killed by the
sword." This was to be soon after the Revelation was written (Rw. 1:1, 3, 19; 22:6ff.).
113. Eusebius, Ecclesiadtial Hi.stoT 2:25:5; Tertullian, lle Exclusion of Heretia 36.
114. Tertullian, Apolo~ 21.
115. Nero 49:2.
Tb Role of Nero Caesar 219
Surely Nero's specter haunts the pages of Revelation. That being
the case, we have a sure terminus for the book's time of writing: June,
A.D. 68, the date of Nero's death. This comports well with dl the
other avenues explored thus far.
13
THE ROLE OF
JEWISH CHRISTIANITY
Invaluable to the determination of the dating of any book is its
Sitz im hben, the "situation in life" in which it is found. The question
here is whether the "situation" we see in the book of Revelation is
more likely a pre-A.D. 70 situation or a ca. A.D. 95 situation.
Of course, there is always the possibility of a distortion of the
evidence in this area, due either to the interpreter's subjectivity or to
an obscurity in the necessary factors of the situation. These problems
are further complicated in Revelation studies because of the close
tolerance of the time differences involved in the debate. While the
critical problems with Old Testament datings often involve determinations
affecting centuries, the Revelation dating problem involves
but three decades. Nevertheless, the Sitz im hben, where reasonably
discernible, does have an important bearing upon the determination
of the dating of the composition of any ancient work, and Revelation
is no exception.
Early Christianity's Development
We observed previously that the composition and the conduct of
the Christian community in Revelation bespeaks an early era in
Christianity's development. "From the very beginning of the story in
Acts this Christian group is marked as Jwish in its origins and
back~ound." Christianity gradually developed through several stages
of self-awareness and missionary outreach in the first century of its
existence. 2 Its first stage in Christ's ministry was almost wholly
1. Joseph A. Fitzmeyer, Essays on t/u Ssmitic Background of ths New Testamsnt (London:
Chapman, 1971), p. 274.
2. C. F. D. Moule's chapter entitled "The Church Explains Itselfi Stages of Self-
Awareness" is helpful reading in this regard. See Moule, Z7u Birth of the New Testament,
220
Th Role ofJmish Chri@izni~ 221
focused on racial Israel and religious Judaism. The Lord Himself
ministered first to "the lost sheep of Israel."3 Later, in the second
stage toward the end of Christ's ministry, the Great Commission
(Matt. 20:28fT.; Acts 1:8) commanded a worldwide outreach to all
nations. But that this was only dimly understood by the early original
(Jewish) Christians is evident in light of the difficulties witnessed in
Acts 10, 11, 15, and Galatians 2.
Even in this early post-commission Christianity, believers continued
to gravitate toward the Jews: engaging in Jewish worship observances
(Acts 2: lff.; 21:26; 24:11), focusing on and radiating their
ministry from Jerusalem (Acts 2 — 5) while frequenting the Temple
(Acts 2:46; 3: lfK; 4: 1; 5:21fY.; 21:26; 26:21), attending the synagogues
(13:5, 14; 14:1; 15:21; 17:lfI; 18:4, 7, 19, 26; 19:8; 22:19; 24:12;
26: 11), designating themselves as the true heirs of Judaism (Gal.
3:27-29; 6:16; Phil. 3:3), and so forth.
The first Christians did not think of the Church primarily as an
organized society; to them it was the faithful Remnant consisting of
heirs to the divine promises; it was the New Israel and its members
were therefore the elect or chosen of God; it was the Temple of the
divine presence indwelt by the Spirit.4
Leonhard Goppelt discusses the matter at hand by commenting that
Jesus'
disciples, however, were faithful at first in their observance of both,
as Acts unobtrusively recounts . . . , so that their special teaching
and customs offered no occasion for them not to be considered Jews.
Indeed, they had not separated themselves publicly nearly as much
as had the Essenes. Only after A.D. 70 did the requirements for
membership in Judaism become more stringent.5
3rd ed. (New York Harper & Row, 1982), chap. 3. Cfl also Philip Schaff, HistoV oftb
Chrz.rtian Church, 8 VOIS. (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1910 1950), vol. 1, chap. 11:
"Theology of the Apostolic Church"; and Frederic W. Farrar, Tlu Ear~ Days of ChristianiQ
(New York: Cassell, 1884), chap. 19: '~udaic Christianity." A quite liberal analysis of
thk fact, requiring cautious employment, can be found in Charles Guignebert, Tb Ear~
Hi.rto~ of Chtitiani~ (New York: Twayne, n.d. rep.), pp. 10SM See also Gregory Dix,
Jew am! Greek: A .$'tuaj in the l%srnitiw Church (Westminster Dacre Press, n.d.), chap. 2.
3. See Matthew 10:6ff.; 15:21K; John 1:11; cp. Romans 1:16.
4. J. G. Davies, The Ear~ Chtitian Chwh (London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1965),
p. 46.
5. Leonhard Goppelt, Apostolic and Post-Apostolk Times, trans. Robert A. Guelich
222 BEFORE JERUSALEM FELL
The Jewish Character of
Christianity in Revelation
In Revelation there is quite suggestive evidence that the era in
which John wrote was one in which Christianity was still largely
affected by and strongly attached to the Jewish community.
Tb Evidence
In Revelation 2:9 and 3:9 two churches are warned that some
claim to be Jews, but are not:
I know your tribulation and your poverty (but you are rich), and the
blasphemy by those who say they are Jews and are not, but are a
synagogue of Satan (Rev. 2:9).
Behold, I will cause those of the synagogue of Satan, who say that
they are Jews, and are not, but lie – behold, I will make them to
come and bow down at your feet, and to know that I have loved you
(Rev. 3:9).
John here indicates that at least two of the seven churches (Smyrna
and Philadelphia) are plagued by "those who say they are Jews. "
That those who plagued them were racial Jews and undoubtedly of
the Jewish faith can be fairly assumed in that the Jews had distinctive
racial features and wore a distinctive cultic mark (circumcision).6
The question naturally arises: Who would array themselves against
the Church, posing as racial Jews, who were not racial Jews?7 Apparently
these churches were being persecuted by Jews in these two
(London: Adam and Charles Black, 1970), p. 26. He documents the Jewish terminology
which Christians used of themselves (pp. 26ff.) and develops the Church's "selfunderstanding"
in chaps. 2 and 3.
6. Justin Martyr wrote "For the circumcision according to the flesh, which is from
Abraham, was given for a sign; that you may be separated from other nations, and fmm
us; . . . For you are not recognised among the rest of men by any other mark than your
fleshly circumcision" (LWogw with Tu@o tk Jsw 16). Tacitus wrote of the Jews: "They
adopted circumcision to distinguish themselves fmm other peoples by this difference"
(Historiss 5:5). See also Martial 7:82 and Tertullian, Ars An.swx @ th JrM 3. In the
post-Maccabean era circumcision attained immense importance among the Jews, 1
Macsabees 1:15, 48, 6Q Assam#ion of Moses 8:1; Josephus, Antiquitia 12:241. They also
wore distinctive clothing (Num. 15), which had developed by this time into the prayershawl
with its tassels.
7. Interestingly for our thesis, in the two verses under consideration John uses the
Hebrew word for the devil (ucmczvd~), rather than the Greek (&@oAoq). Commentators
deeming this fact noteworthy include Robert H. Mounce, T& Book of Reuelatiors. New
Tb Role ofJewtih Christiani~ 223
cities, as Crtristianity was very often persecuted in the first century
by the Jews (cf. Acts 13:50; 14:2, 5, 19; 17:5; etc.). Frend observes
that "down to A.D. 64 danger threatened the Christian Church from
the Jews and the Jews alone."8
Jewish antipathy to Christianity at Smyma is very evident, for
the "Jews at Smyrna were both numerous and aggressively hostile."g
Thus, John derides these Jews as not really being Jews in the true,
spiritual sense of the word. As Mounce puts it: "Members of the local
synagogue may claim to be Jews, but the very claim constitutes them
liars." 10 Thus John does here what Paul does in Remans 2:17-29: he
distinguishes between the "true Jew" (the Christian who is a '~ew"
inwardly and spiritually) and the "false Jew" (one who is a Jew
racially and religiously). These Jews had forsaken the truth of historic,
God-given Judaism by not following after the Messiah and
subscribing to the Christian faith.
Thus, John attributes a spiritual significance of the highest order
to being a "Jew," i.e., in the true sense of the word: a Christian. The
Christians at this ~tage were argumentatively presenting themselves
as the true Jews. 1 This must be at an early stage of Christian
development when Christianity still understood and presented itself
as true Judaism.
This conception of Christianity is strongly reaffirmed again later
in Revelation. Christians are still designated as the true Jews, the
fullness of the Twelve Tribes of Israel (Rev. 7:4-8; 14: lff.; 21: 12).
Revelation 7:4-8 is particular instructive:
And I heard the number of those who were sealed, one hundred and
International Commentary on the New Testament (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1977), p.
93; Leon Morris, 2% Rsuslation of St. John (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1969), p. 64 R.
H. Charles, The Rewlation of,St. John, 2 VOIS. (Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark, 1920) 1:56-57;
Henry Barclay Swete, Comrmntq O. Revelation (Grand Rapids: Kregel, 1906 1977), p.
31; and many others.
8. W. H. C. Frend, The Ear~ Church (Philadelphia Fortress, 1982), p. 29.
9. Swete, Revelation, p. 31. He cites Lightfoot, Ignatiw, 1:468 ff. and Schurer, Geschichte,
3rd cd., pp. 11, 29, 34. Original ancient documentation is garnered from
Andreas, Int@retation of Rswlation, ad. 10C.; Ignatius, Letter to the Smryaaeam 1 :2; The
Mart@dom of Pol@arp 12:2; 13:1. For additional early, non-canonical evidence of Jewish
antipathy to Christianity elsewhere, see also Justin, Dialagua 16:11; 47: 15; 965; Tertullian,
Scorpion's Sting 10.
10. Mounce, Revelation, p. 119.
11. CP. Matt. 19:2& Luke 22:30; Gal. 6 l& James 1:1; 1 Pet. 2:9.
224 BEFORE JERUSALEM FELL
forty-four thousand sealed fi-om every tribe of the sons of Israel: from
the tribe of Judah, twelve thousand were sealed, from the tribe of
Reuben twelve thousand, from the tribe of Gad twelve thousand, from
the tribe of Asher twelve thousand, from the tribe of Naphthali twelve
thousand, from the tribe of Manasseh twelve thousand, from the tribe
of Simeon twelve thousand, from the tribe of Levi twelve thousand,
from the tribe of Issachar twelve thousand, from the tribe of Zebulun
twelve thousand, from the tribe of Joseph twelve thousand, from the
tribe of Benjamin, twelve thousand were sealed.
Inarguably, an elevated symbolism is here presented. If nothing else,
the perfect rounding of numbers along with the exact and identical
count in each of the tribes bespeak a symbolic representation. The
number "1000" is frequently used in Scripture as an indefinite, yet
significantly large number (Psa. 90:4; Dan. 7:10; 2 Pet. 3:8; Heb.
12:22).
Yet this symbolism must be founded upon some historical designation.
And, of course, the "twelve tribes of Israel" is the longstanding
historical configuration of the Jewish race. 12 In light of this,
it would seem that two possible interpretations easily lend themselves
to consideration: either this number represents the totality of the
Christian Church as the fulfillment of the Jewish hope, 13 or it represents
the saved of Jewish lineage. 14 In either case the interpretation
most likely supports the early date of Revelation in that Christian
history was at a stage in which either the Church at large was called
by Jewish names or in which the bulk of Christians were Jewish.
Other indicators include the fact that not only are the expressions
of Revelation very Hebraic, 15 but some words are even translated
into Hebrew (Rev. 9:11; 16: 16). The Church is pictured under a
symbol strongly expressive of a Judaistic Christianity, as a woman
12. See Gen. 35:22ff.; 46:8ff.; 49; Ex. 1: ltl; Num. 1; 2; 13:4ff.; 26 3% Deut. 27:1 lff.;
33:6tI; Josh. 13-22; Judg. 5; 1 Chron. 2-8; 12:24fT; 27: 16tT.; Eze. 48.
13. E.g., Swete, Revelation, pp. 98-99.
14. E.g., Victorious, Commentary on the Apaca~pse, ad. kw.
15. "NO book in ail the New Testament is so Hebraistic as the Revelation" (Moses
Stuart, Camrruntary on tlu Apoca~pse, 2 vols. Andovec Allen, Merrill, and Wardwell,
1845 1:229). Charles even develops a grammar of the language of Revelation, based on
its Hebraic character (Charles, Rewfutwn, 1 :cxvii K). Torrey suggests an Aramaic ori~nal
for it (Charles C. Torrey, 7?u A@a~pse of John New Haven: Yale, 1958, p. x). See
earlier discussion in Chap. 12.
Tb Role ofJiwish Christianip 225
with a crown of twelve stars on her head (Rev. 12:1 ff. ). Christians
are represented as worshiping in the Temple and ministering in
Jerusalem (Rev. 11:1-8).
The Interpretation of the Evia?me
In light of such evidence, we can safely observe that "the Apocalypse
of John plainly belongs to the period in which Jews and
Christians still lived together."16 Robinson poses a question and
suggests a conclusion along these lines:
For is it credible that the references in Rev. 2:9 and 3:9 to those who
"claim to be Jews but are not" could have been made in that form
after 70? For the implication is that Christians are the real Jews, the
fullness of the twelve tribes (7:4-8; 21: 12), and that if these Jews were
genuinely the synagogue of Yahweh (as they claim) and not of Satan
they would not be slandering "my beloved people." Even by the time
of the Epistle of Barnabas, which, unlike the book of Revelation,
clearly presupposes the destruction of the temple (16:1-4) and the
irrevocable divide between "them" and "us" (cf. 13:1, ~ he~Kg sig
fipdg H .d~ ~KSIVOLJ~), such language is no longer possible. 17
As noted in Robinson's quote, Barnabas, soon after the fall of Jerusalem
(c. 100), posited a radical "us/them" distinction between Christians
and Jews. This is in keeping with later, post-Temple Christian
practice. Ignatius (c. 107) writes: "It is absurd to speak of Jesus
Christ with the tongue, and to cherish in the mind a Judaism which
has now come to an end. For where there is Christianity there cannot
be Judaism."18 Justin Martyr (c. 160) does the same: "For the
circumcision according to the flesh, which is from Abraham, was
given for a sign; that you may be separated from other nations, and
from W, and that you alone may suffer that which you now justly
suffe~ . . . For you are not recognized among the rest of men by any
other mark than your fleshly circumcision. . . . For you have not the
power to lay hands upon u+ on account of th~se who now have the
mastery. But as often as you could you did so. " 19
16. Torrey, Afioca@e, p. 80.
17. John A. T. Robinson, Redating tb New Tedammt (Philadelphia: Westminster,
1976), pp. 227-228. He notes that Hort in his commentary on Revelation 2:9 made this
same point (F. J. A. Hort, The Apoca@@e ofSt. John: 1-111 London: Macmillan, 1908).
18. E@stle to the Ma~sians 10.
19. Dialogm with T~pho the Jew 16. Emphasis mine.
226 BEFORE JERUSALEM FELL
It should be self-evident that thecataclysmic events of A.D. 70
played a dramatic role in the life of both the Church and Judaism in
terms of their inter-relationships. Unfortunately, this event is too
often overlooked by many.20 But was not Christianity born in Jerusalem
(Acts 2) in obedience to Christ's commands (Luke 24:44-53;
Acts 1)? Was it not headquartered there in its earliest period (Acts
8:1; 11:2; 15:2; Gal. 1:17, 18; 2:1, 2)? Yet when the dust settles after
the Fall of Jerusalem, we no longer find a Christian concentration
on Jerusalem. Indeed, in A.D. 80 Gamaliel II caused the Jewish daily
prayer (Skrnow ~~re) to include a curse on the Christians: "Let the
Nazarene ~c. Christian and the Menim perish utterly."21 Indeed,
"it is impossible for us nowadays to realize the shock of A.D. 70 to a
community in which Jewish and Gentile members alike had been
reared in the profoundest veneration of the immemorial sanctity of
the Holy City and the Temple."22
Certainly the breach did not come overnight. Since its inception
Christianity had been persecuted almost exclusively by the Jews
throughout the period of the Acts.23 Yet many converts were being
20. Few New Testament scholars have really come to grips with the significance of
Jerusalem's fall. S. G. F. Bmndon states: "Attention has already been drawn to the
curious neglect scholars have shown towards the subject of the significance of the
destmction ofJerusalem for the infant Christian Church" (Brandon, 7h Fall ofJerusalem
ad ttu Christian Church: A Study of the Effects of the Je.wirh Overthrow of A.D. 70 on Chri.rtianip
London: SPCK, 1957, p. x). Since the publication of Robinson's persuasive Redating the
New i%tarrwzt (1976), however, this calamity is difficult to overlook.
21. See Torrey, Apocalypse, p. 82; H. Daniel-Reps, Th Church of Apostles and Mart@s,
trans. Audrey Butler (London: Dent, 1963), p. 48.
22. B. H. Streeter, ~ Four Gospds: A SMy of Origims (London: Macmillan, 1924), p.
516.
23. We maintain this in spite of the confident assertions by Brandon that "the
Palestinian Christians stood well in the estimation of their fellow countrymen and were
subjected to no concerted persecution by the popular leaders and the people" and "the
Palestinian Christians were not an outcast body from the national life of Israel, but rather
they enjoyed a certain measure of sympathy from the Pharisees" (Brandon, Fall of
Jerusalem, p. 100). His argument is primarily based on an alleged incongruity and
confusion in the record of the Acts which he discovem by comparing other ancient
records of the era (see his chap. 6).
Moule is surelv more in line with the realitv of the situation when he writes: '<so far.
then, as our only New Testament narratives go, there is no predisposition to expect other
than Jewish origins for persecution. And if it is objected that the Acts is bias-d in this
respect, because it is a studied apologia to the Roman government, the burden of proof
rests with those who try to discredit its reliability here" (Mouie, Birth ofiVsw Tatarrwrst,
3rd cd., p. 159). He then proceeds to defend this evangelical position with considerable
expertise (pp. 159tT.).
The Role ofJewish Christiani~ 227
won from Judaism (Acts 2:41; 4:4; 18:8; 21:20-22; 28:23-24), and the
Christians were, in fact, found operating in Jewish circles.24 "When
Paul comes into a city, he first goes into the synagogue and there
preaches to the Jews. The synagogue is the natural center for him,
for there he finds those who are interested in the subject. He only
goes to the pagans when the Jews refuse to hear him, but even among
the pagans he begins with those who have already developed a
certain relationship to Judaism."25 It is, of course, assumed by the
non-Christian Jews that Judaism and Christianity were not one, for
they zealously persecuted the Christians.
Up until the era of the mid-A.D. 60s (but not after A.D. 70) the
Remans -were prone to identi~ Christianity as a sect of Judaism,
intimately and necessarily bound up with it.26 This was obviously
due to: its object of worship (Christ, a Jew); its origin (Judea) and
leadership (Jewish apostles), and the bulk of its membership (predominantly
Jewish); its self-designation ("Israel of God" Gal. 6:15,
"seed of Abraham" Gal. 3:29, "the circumcision" Phil. 3:3 etc.);
and its constant involvement in the religious life of the Jews. Sulpicius
Severus reported that Titus's war council conducted before the siege
of the Temple debated whether or not to destroy the Temple:
Titus is said, after calling a council, to have first deliberated whether
S. Angus commented rightly that "the first persecutions for the infant church came
entirely from exclusive Judaism, and it was the Jews who first accused Christians before
the Roman courts" (S. Angus, "Roman Empire" in International Standard Bible Eruydopedra
Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1929 42605).
Moule writes in this regard: "So in the Acts the narrative of actual persecution begins:
and from start to finish it is instigated by the Jews. When the Gentiles do join in, it is
only in the unthinking manner of excited mobs . . . , or because they momentarily
imagine that their political peace is threatened. It is the Jews who are really the
aggressors. . If one asks what New Testament references to the persecution of
Christians are inescapably and demonstrably to be referred to Gentile action, there are
extraordinarily few" (Moule, Birth, pp. 108-109).
24. Brandon may state the situation a littfe too strongly, but he is very close to an
accurate assessment when he writes: "We have seen, partly on the evidence of the Acts
itself, that the Jewish Christians remained firmly attached to their national faith and
worshiped regularly in the Temple" (Brandon, Fall ofJerusalem, p. 100).
25. Kurt Aland, A Histov of Christian@ vol. 1: From th Beginnings to the l%reshold oftlw
Refownatson, trans. James L. Schaaf (Philadelphia Fortress, 1985), p. 32.
26. Tacitus, Annals 15:4+ Sulpicius Severus, Sacred Hi-stoy 2:30. As Brandon notes,
"the tendency to place an essential emphasis upon the Jewish origin in these two
writings is clear" (Brandon, Fall ofJerusalan, p. 121 n. 1).
228 BEFORE JERUSALEM FELL
heshould destroy the temple, astructure ofsuch extraordinary work.
For it seemed good to some that a sacred edifice, distinguished above
all human achievements, ought not to be destroyed. . . . But on the
opposite side, others and Titus himself thought that the temple ought
specially to be overthrown in order that the religion of the Jews and
of the Christians might more thoroughly be subverted; for that these
religions, although contrary to each other, had nevertheless proceeded
from the same authors; that the Christians had sprung up from among
the Jews; and that, if the root were extirpated, the offshoot would
speedily perish.27
Clearly the idea here involved the belief in the dependence of Christianity
upon the Temple.**
The early Christians were earnest in their concern to win Israel,
even attempting to operate within the Temple-synagogue structure
ofJudaism. 29 Nevertheless, there was a gradual cleavage between the
Jew and Christianity that led to a final, irrevocable breach: "And
then the breach was no doubt clinched by political circumstance. In
the disastrous war of A.D. 66-70, the 'Nazarenes' (a term by then
applied to the Jewish Christians) refused to participate in the Jewish
resistance movement, the Zealot insurrection. . . . T he crisis of
A.D. 66 decisively separated Jew from Christian."3°
27. Sacred History 2:30.
28. This passage in Severus's writing is often doubted as to its historicity, largely on
the basis of Josephus's contrary asseveration (Wars 6:4:3-7). Yet there is ample reason
to believe that Severus had access to some document (possibly the lost portion of
Tacitus's Hi.rtones, or the De ludati by Antonius Julianus) that compelled him to accept
the authenticity of the account over against Josephus, despite the extreme popularity of
Josephus's writings among Christians. See the insightful defense given in Brandon, The
Fall ofJeruralem, p. 120, and E. Mary Smallwood, Tb Jews Under Roman Rule. Studies in
Judaism in Late Antiquity 20 (Leiden: E, J. Brill, 1976) p. 324fI
The matter is debated in the following P. de Labriolle, History and Literature of
Christtanip (London, 1924), p. 382. St. John Thackeray, Josephus: the Man and the
Hzdorian (New York, 1929), p. 37. H. Milman, Hr.rtoiy of the Jiws (London, 1909), vol.
2, p. 90. W, D. Morrison, The Jews Under Roman Rule (London, 1890), p. 176. T,
Mommsen, T/w Provinces of the Roman Empire (London, 1886), vol. 2, p. 217. A. Momigliano,
Cambridge Ancient History, vol 10: T?u Augu.rtan Em/nre, 44 B. C.– A.D 70 (New York:
Macmillan, 1930), p. 862. B. H. Streeter, Cambrrdge Ancient Htstory, vol. 11: The Imperial
Peme, A.D. 70 – 192 (London: Cambridge, 1936), pp. 254ff.. R. Eider, The Messmh Jesus
arzdJohn the Ba,bti.rt, trans. A. H. Drappe (London, 1931 ), pp. 552ff.
29. M. Goguel, T& Birth of Chrirtzani~, trans. H. C. Snape (London: George Allen,
1953), pp. 510-530, even deemed the ration d'dre of Acts as seeking to secure a re/i#"o licita
status for Christianity as the true Israel.
30. Moule, Birth ~New Tatament, 3rd cd., p. 59.
Th Role ofJewtih Christiani~ 229
A Catena of Scholars
Many scholars recognize the significance of A.D. 70 in the separation
of Judaism and Christianity. Perhaps a catena of their authoritative
statements will prove helpful in throwing light upon the matter.
Schaff writes:
A few years afterwards followed the destruction of Jerusalem, which
must have made an overpowering impression and broken the last ties
which bound Jewish Christianity to the old theocracy. . . .
The awfiul catastrophe of the destruction of the Jewish theocracy
must have produced the profoundest sensation among the Christians.
. . . It was the greatest calamity ofJudaism and a great benefit
to Christianity; a refutation of the one, a vindication . . . of the
other. It separated them forever. . . . Henceforth the heathen could
no longer look upon Christianity as a mere sect of Judaism, but must
regard and treat it as a new, peculiar religion. The destruction of
Jerusalem, therefore, marks that momentous crisis at which the Christian
church as a whole burst forth forever from the chrysalis of
Judaism, awoke to a sense of maturity, and in government and
worship at once took its independent stand before the world.3 i
Harnack agrees with this view when he notes that "it was the
destruction of Jerusalem and the temple which seems to have provoked
the final crisis, and led to a complete breach between the two
parties i.e., Jew and Christian ."32
Ewald observes in this regard: "As by one great irrevocable
stroke the Christian congregation was separated from the Jewish, to
which it had clung as a new, vigorous offshoot to the root of the old
tree and as the daughter to the mother."33
Henderson concurs: "The destruction of the Temple incidentally
liberated Christianity from the gravest peril which still threatened
the diffusion of the new religion, releasing it in its youthful years from
shackles by which its straiter Jewish adherents, defiant of the memory
of the Apostle of the Gentiles, sought to fetter and impede its growth. "34
31. Scha~ History, 1:196,403-4.
32. Adolf Harnack, The Mimion and Expam"on of Christianip in ths Ftrst Three Centuries,
2 VOIS. (New York: Putnam, 1908) 1:63.
33. G. H. A. Ewald, Geschichti des Volkes Israel, 2nd cd., vol. 7, p. 171. Cited in Schaff,
Histoy, 1 :4Q4n.
34. B. W. Henderson, Five Romun Emperors (Cambridge University Press, 1927), p. 9.
230 BEFORE JERUSALEM FELL
In an introductory synopsis of his epilogue, Brandon writes of the
matter: "Christianity twice-born. The Jewish overthrow of A.D. 70
emancipated the infant ftith from its Jewish cradle, thus making
possible its career as a world-religion. . . . The destruction ofJerusalem
gave other cities decisive parts in the life of the Church, especially
Rome. The Jewish catastrophe of A.D. 70 is probably the next most
crucial event for Christianity after the Resurrection experiences."35
Bo Reicke writes that
Despite the Zealot movement, the church thought it theologically and
politically important to maintain a positive relationship with Jerusalem
and Judaism, until the martyrdom of James in 62, the growth of
terrorism, and the first Jewish War finally forced a break with organized
Judaism. This long association elucidated the connection between
the Old and the New Covenant. It also facilitated the conversion
ofJews and the growth of the Christian community in the Roman
Empire, where, from the time of Caesar to that of Nero, the prohibition
of associations did not apply to the Jews and therefore also not
to the Christians.36
Davies argues that the fall of Jerusalem made "absolute the
divorce between Church and Synagogue," and further that "traces
of Jewish Christianity are to be found in the following centuries, but
the fall ofJerusalem reduced them to a position of complete insignificance
for the future history of the Church. "37
Dix writes that "the transition was made, and quickly, in the 'life
of the Church.' The events of A.D. 66-70 hastened the concluding
stages."38
Frend states that "there can be little question of the members of
the 'new Israel' desiring to break all links with the old in the period
from 75 to 100."39
Other scholars can be consulted on this matter.w
35. Brandon, Fall ofJem.mlem, p. xix.
36. Bo Reicke, Tb New T~tameat Era: The World of the Bible From 500 B. C. to A.D. 100,
trans. David E. Green (Philadelphia: Fortress, 1968), p. 211. See also comments on pages
227,245,251.
37. J. G. Davies, The Ear~ Chrirtian Church (London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1965),
p. 46.
38. Dix, Jew and Greek, p. 111.
39. Frend, Tle Rzse of Chtitianip, pp. 122-123.
40. For example: J. C. I. Gieseler, Textbook of E2cle.sia.siical Hi-story, trans. Francis
Cunningham, vol. 1 (Philadelphia Carey, Lea, and Blanchard, 1836), pp. 55, 62.
The Role ofJ2wish Christianity 231
Conclusion
The matter seems clear enough: When John wrote Revelation
Christianity's situation was one in which it was still operating within
Jewish circles and institutions to a very large extent. Its grammatical
peculiarities and cultural allusions are evidently of a strongly Jewish
color. Historically we know that this simply was not the case in the
post-temple era beyond A.D. 70. The cleavage between Judaism and
Christianity was too radical. Hence, this factor of the Sitz im Leben is
indicative of a pre-70 date for Revelation.
Gerhard Uhlhom, The Contict OJ Christiarzip with Heathenakrn, ed. and trans. Egbert C.
Smyth and C. J. H. Ropes, 2nd ed. (New York: Scribners, 1912), pp. 238-255. Merrill
C. Tenney, New Tedarnast Tirna (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1965), pp. 303, 321. G.
Ernest Wright, ed. Great People of the Bible and How Thg Ltved (Pleasantville, NY: Reader's
Digest, 1974), pp. 390, 418-419. Howard Clark Kee, Urzahstandirsg the New Testarwnt, 4th
ed. (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1983), pp. 291ff. J. P. M. Sweet, Revelation.
Westminster Pelican Commentaries (Philadelphia Westminster, 1979), pp. 28ff. Maurice
Gordon Dametz, The Focal Point.r of Chrr.rtian History (New York Carlton, n.d.), p. 26. J.
G. Davies, The Ear~ Church, in E. O. James, cd., Htitoy ofReli~"on Series (New York: Holt,
Rinehart, Winston, n.d.), p. 46.
14
THE LOOMINGJEWISH WAR
As we press on in our argument, we move to a consideration of
the fact that Israel's condition in Revelation bespeaks a time pre-A.D.
70, as well. This is especially evident in the portrayal of Israel's
physical condition in the land.
Israel in the Land
In Revelation 7:1-8 we find an interesting temporary divine
protection of "the land" (y~) 1 where four angels are seen holding
back the winds of destruction:
After this I saw four angels standing at the four corners of the earth,
holding back the four winds of the earth, so that no wind should blow
on the earth or on the sea or on any tree. And I saw another angel
ascending from the rising of the sun, having the seal of the living
God; and he cried out with a loud voice to the four angels to whom
it was granted to harm the earth and the sea, saying, "Do not harm
the earth or the sea or the trees, until we have sealed the bondservants
of our God on their foreheads."
Then follows the sealing of the 144,000 from the Twelve Tribes of
Israel.
The language and the manner in which the whole thing is stated could
hardly more distinctly imply that the Jewish nation was still existing,
and occupying its own land, — a land exposed to some impending
desolation, from which the sealed, the one hundred and forty-four
thousand, were to be exempt. The twelve tribes are named, notwithstanding
so many of them had been lost, because the destruction
revealed in connection with the sealing was to overtake the whole land
1. For the proper understanding of YQ as a reference to "the land" (i.e., Israel), see
earlier discussion in Chap. 8.
232
The Looming Jewtih War 233
ofJudaea, once the inheritance of and partitioned among these twelve
tribes. It was a destruction that was to overtake Judaea; therefore
Jewish Christians are alone selected.2
Clearly the reference to the Twelve Tribes is to Christians (as noted
previously), for: (1) God intervenes to protect them, and (2) they are
called "bond-servants of our God." Just as certainly may we understand
that these are Christians of Jewish extraction, for: ( 1 ) they are
in "the land" (w. 1, 2), and (2) they are contrasted with the "great
multitude" from "every nation" who praise God (v. 9). The designation
"Twelve Tribes" is another common means by which to refer to
"the tribes of the land" (cp. Rev. 1:7). Here, however, it is not the
entirety of the Twelve Tribes that is protected (the whole race of
Israel, as such), but only 144,000 of them, i.e., "the cream of the
crop," a perfect number,3 those who have converted to Christ. Stuart
presents a very logical question: "Why were these 144,000 designated
by Jewish tribes?" His answer is most reasonable: it was because the
pending destruction was threatened againstJudea; "ifnot, why should
Jewish Christians alone be here mentioned and selected?"4
The fact that an angel intervenes before they are destroyed in the
land surely indicates the era prior to the final and total devastation
of the land in A.D. 70.5 Were "the land" already destroyed (as it was
in A.D. 70), such a protection would have been embarrassingly
anachronistic. While speaking in the Olivet Discourse of the destruction
of the very Temple to which the disciples could physically point
(i.e., "Herod's Temple," Matt. 24:1-2), Jesus warned His followers
that they should flee Judea (24: 16) when it was time for these things
to come to pass (which occurred in A.D. 70). He added further that
they should accept His promise that these horrendous events would
be cut short (24:22), and that he who endured to the end would be
2. James M. Macdonald, 2% Lzj2 and Writings of St John (London: Hodder &
Stoughton, 1877), p. 157.
3. The number is the product of quantitative fullness ( 10) trebled (i.e., 10x 10x 10)
from each tribe, and is multiplied by the number of tribes squared (12 x 12). On the
number 10 see Steven Barabas, "Numbers," in Merrill C. Tenney, cd., Zondemzn Pictorial
Bible Dictiorzmy (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1967), p. 590.
4. Moses Stuart, Commenta~ on tb Apocu~pse, 2 vols. (Andove~ Allen, Merrill, and
Wardwell, 1845) 1:274.
5. It must be remembered, as noted earlier, that the expectation of the book was of
the soon occurrence of the events; Rev. 1:1, 3, 19; 3:10; 6:9; 22:7-12.
234 BEFORE JERUSALEM FELL
saved through it all (24:13). He also clearly taught that all of these
things would happen to "this generation" (Matt. 2432). Indeed, this
coming event was to be "the great tribulation" (Matt. 24:21) – the
very tribulation in which John finds himself enmeshed even as he
writes (Rev. 1:9; 2:22; cp. 7:14).
This impending destruction of Jerusalem prophesied by Christ
casts its shadow backward over New Testament history. There are
numerous indications of the portending destruction that was to come,
even as early as in John the Baptist's ministry. In Matthew 3 :7ff. we
read:
But when he saw many of the Pharisees and Sadducees coming for
baptism, he said to them, "You brood of vipers, who warnedyou to jlee
jom the wrath to come? Therefore bring forth fruit in keeping with your
repentance; and do not suppose that you can say to yourselves, 'We
have Abraham for our father'; for I say to you, that God is able from
these stones to raise up children to Abraham. And the axe is already
laid at the root of the trees. . . . And His winnowing fork is in His
hand, and He will thoroughly clean His threshing floo~ and He will
gather His wheat into the barn, but He will burn up the chaff with
unquenchable fire."
There are a good number of prophetic statements in Christ's teaching
regarding Jerusalem's demise (e.g., Matt. 21:33-46; 22:1-14; 23:31-
38; 24: 1-34). Somewhat later in Acts 2: 16ff. the Pentecostal tongues
event in Jerusalem was pointed to as a harbinger of "the day of the
Lord" that was coming. Tongues-speaking was a warning sign to
Peter's hearers of the necessity of their being "saved from this perverse
generation" (Acts 2:40) before the "great and glorious day of
the Lord" (Acts 2:20).6 In Acts 2:43E. and Acts 4:32ff. a strong case
can be made showing that there was a practical motive to the
Jerusalem church's selling of their property and sharing of the profits.
7 Such action was not commanded them, nor was it practiced
elsewhere. This selling of property and distributing of the profits
seems to have been related to the impending destruction of the city
6. See O. Palmer Robertson, "Tongues: Sign of Covenantal Curse and Blessing" in
Wahnirsster Thohgtial Journal 38 (1975-76) :43K; Richard Gatlin, Perspectives on Pentecost
(Phillipsburg, NJ: Presbyterian and Reformed, 1979), pp. 102K.; Kenneth L. Gentry,
Jr., Cu"al Issues Regarding Xmgsus (Mauldin, SC: GoodBirth, 1982), pp. 14-20.
7. This does not deny, of course, the spiritual, brotherly love also involved in the
situation.
Trk Looming Jewish War 235
prophesied by Jesus. The Jerusalem holocaust was coming in that
generation and would render the land valueless. 1 Thessalonians 2:16
speaks of the Jews who "always fill up the measure of their sins" and
upon whom "the wrath has come . . . to the utmost. " Hebrews
12:18-29 contrasts Judaism and its fulfillment, Christianity, and notes
that there is an approaching "shaking" of the old order coming.
There are many other Scriptural indications that point to something
dramatic and earth-shaking that was coming upon the world and
that would be felt in reverberations even beyond Judea.8
Thus, Revelation 7 is strongly indicative of a pre-fall Judea. After
the Jewish War "Palestine was proclaimed a Roman province, and
a great part of the land became the personal property of the emperor.
But the country was in ruins, its once flourishing towns and villages
almost without inhabitants, dogs and jackals prowling through the
devastated streets and houses. In Jerusalem, a million people are
reported to have penshed, with a hundred thousand taken captive
to glut the slave markets of the empire. "g The evidence for the
awfulness of the destruction is not based solely upon documentary
testimony from Josephus, but it is also well-evidenced archaeologically:
The recent excavations have provided striking evidence of Titus's
destruction. . . . In the destruction of these buildings, walls were
razed, paving stones torn up, and the drain clogged with material
firmly dated to the last part of the century by the pottery. In the drain
were human skulls and other bones, washed down from the ruined
city higher up the slope.
Even more dramatic were the finds in Site N, the area in which the
fine street of Herod Agrippa was uncovered. Reference has already
been made to the collapse of the staircase leading east from the street
(p. 165). The tumble of stones was remarkable even for Jerusalem
where tumbles of stones are a phenomenon all too common in excavations.
The magnitude of the disaster perhaps made a special impact
owing to the excellence of the destroyed buildings as shown by the
magnificently-dressed stones, and the period of the collapse was very
precisely pin-pointed by the discovery at its base of a hoard of coins
of the First Revolt, hidden by defenders who could not recover them
8. E.g., Rem. 13:11, 12; 1 Cor. 7:26, 29-31; Col. 3:6 Heb. 10:25, 37; James. 5:8, 9;
1 Pet. 45, 7; 1 John 2:17-18.
9. Rufus Learsi, Israel: A Histoiy ~t/wJewi.rh People (New York World, 1949), p. 178.
236 BEFORE JERUSALEM FELL
before the city was overwhelmed by Titus. Even more indicative of
the complete desolation of this area that had formed part of the city
of Herod Agrippa was thestate of the ruins. . . . It was two centuries
or more before human activity began once more to make its mark in
the whole area of ancient Jerusalem. 10
Of Titus's final siege, it can be asserted that "the ensuing slaughter
and destruction were terrible."'  The land after the war was devastated;
the Roman troops settled in as a policing presence: "When
Titus departed after his capture ofJerusalem in A.D. 70, the city was
in ruins, and the Xth Legion Fretensis was left to control the ruins." 12
Consequently, upon the A.D. 95-96 hypothesis, there would be no
need for the angels protectively to seal Christians from the devastation:
it already would have occurred.
In Revelation 11 there is additional evidence of Jerusalem's
pre-fall state. As discussed previously, the Temple is portrayed as still
intact and under Jewish control (Rev. 11:1, 2); the "treading" of the
courts is foreseen as a jidtire occurrence (Rev. 11:2 note the future
rm+oucnv). In addition to this, Revelation 11:8 suggests that Jerusalem's
streets were intact at the time of John's writing: "And their
dead bodies will lie in the street of the great city which mystically is
called Sodom and Egypt, where also their Lord was crucified. "
After Titus's final five-month siege, however, the city was totally
destroyed, the Temple was dismantled, and all fell under Roman
control. Josephus, a witness to the tragedy and the author of the only
surviving contemporary eyewitness account ofJerusalem's fall, writes:
"and now the Remans set fire to the extreme parts of the city, and
burnt them down, and entirely demolished its walls." 13 Later he
reports that
as soon as the army had no more people to slay or to plunder, because
there remained none to be the objects of their fury, (for they would
not have spared any, had there remained any other such work to be
done), Caesar gave orders that they should not demolish the entire
city and temple, but should leave as many of the towers standing as
were of the greatest eminency; that is, Phasaelus, and Hippicus, and
10. Kathleen M. Kenyon, Jerusalem: Excavating 3000 Years of History (New York:
McGraw-Hill, 1967), pp. 185fE
11. Kathleen M, Kenyon, Di~ing Up Jmalem (New York: Praeger, 1974), p, 254.
12. Kenyon, Jerusalem: Excavating, p. 187.
13. Wan 6:9:4.
Th Looming Jmish War 237
Mariamne, and so much of the wall as enclosed the city on the west
side. This wall was spared, in order to afford a camp for such as were
to lie in garrison; as were the towers also spared, in order to demonstrate
to posterity what kind of city it was, and how well fortified,
which the Roman valour had subdued; but for all the rest of the wall,
it was so thoroughly laid even with the ground by those that dug it
up to the foundation, that there was left nothing to make those that
came thither believe it had ever been inhabited. This was the end
which Jerusalem came to by the madness of those that were for
innovations; a city otherwise of great magnificence, and of mighty
fame among all mankind. 14
This corroborates Kenyon's remarks, already cited: "The recent
excavations have provided striking evidence of Titus's destruction. . . .
In the destruction of these buildings, walls were razed, paving stones
torn up, and the drain clogged with material firmly dated to the last
part of the century by the pottery." 15
When the sack of Jerusalem in A.D. 70 was completed, Titus left the
Xth kgio Frentensis to watch over the ruins. Its headquarters were on
the site of Herod's palace on the western ridge, where the three towers
of the palace and a part of the west wall were left standing to form
part of the defences of the legionary headquarters, which continued
there until A.D. 200. . . . Some Jews continued to live in Jerusalem,
but the tragic difference was that there was no longer a Temple in
which the full ceremonial of the worship of Yahweh could be carried
out. '6
Reicke writes of the aftermath:
Under the emperors of the Julio-Claudian house, the Holy Land had
been a procuratorship and temple territory. After the fall ofJerusalem
in 70, its population had been reduced, but the country was by no
means dejudaized. It did, however, lose its relative independence and
autarchy; it remained the land of the Jews only ethnically, not politically.
Palestine was in fact treated as an imperial province and, for
the first time during the Roman period, expropriated. Important sites
were claimed as Roman colonies for soldiers and veterans, including
Caesarea, the newly-founded Flavia Neapolis near Shechem, Em-
14. Wars 7:1:1.
15. Kenyon, Jerusalem: Excavating, p. 185.
16. Kenyon, Diggzng Up Jerusalem, p. 256.
238 BEFORE JERUSALEM FELL
maus, and the environs of Jerusalem. Caesarea remained the official
residence; the governor, however, was no longer a procurator but the
general of the Tenth Legion (called "Fretimis"), whose soldiers were
quartered after thewar mostly in thevicinity of Jerusalem, in partat
Qumran.17
History records that after the Jewish War there was a "permanent
presence of a legion defiling the holy city with military standards
which were objects of cult, and . . . an accompanying civilian
settlement containing pagan shrines as well as baths, shops and other
amenities. . . ."'8 All of this fits well with a pre-A.D. 70 situation.
The Expectation of War
The bulk of the book of Revelation carries out the theme stated
in Revelation 1:7. That is, the majority of the scenes in Revelation
deal with judgment – a judgment interspersed, of course, with songs
of triumph from the persecuted Christians. This judgment is the
direct result of Christ's "judgment coming" (see especially the bulk
of Rev. 6-19). If the previous argumentation heretofore is generally
accurate, then we would expect that these judgment scenes, despite
their frequent symbolic garb, would preserve at least kernels of
historical events. And if so, then in light of the thrust of the present
study, we should rightly expect to document from Revelation certain
historical indicators of the Jewish War with Rome (sometimes called
"The Great Revolt"). In this section of our analysis, we will point
out significant indicators in Revelation that fit hand-in-glove with the
historical records of the Jewish War.
If traces of the Jewish War do exhibit themselves in Revelation,
a conservative analysis of the matter would lead the devout Christian
to conclude that Revelation was written prior to the War, in light of
his conviction as to the supernatural character of true predictive
prophecy. The conservative Christian need not resort either to an ex
eventu interpretation or to multi-documentary, editorialized formcritical
hypotheses. As Stuart points out in regard to Revelation's
theme verse (Rev. 1:7):
17. Bo Reicke, The New Testament Era: Tb World of the Bible from 509 B. C. to A.D. 100,
trans. David E. Green (Philadelphia Fortress, 1968), p. 266.
18. E. Mary Smallwood, The Jews Under Roman Rule. Studies in Judaism in Late
Antiquity 20 (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1976), p. 346.
Tb Looming Jmtih War 239
Here then, on the very front of the book, is exhibited a title-page, as
it were, indicative of a conspicuous part of the contents of the work.
The punishment of the unbelieving and persecuting Jew must follow
the coming of the Lord; and this it is one leading object of the book
to illustrate and confirm. If so, then the @-edi&on must have preceded
the event predicted.'9
The Ease of Application
to the Jewish War
As a matter of fact – and quite surprisingly to the modern evangelical
Christian – much of Revelation's vivid imagery lends itself
admirably to the catastrophic events of the Jewish War. And if the
imagery does fit reasonably well, such would suggest at least the
@na faie plausibility of the argument for an early date – a date that
has been demonstrated on other, more certain grounds. Contrariwise,
if it were incapable of explication from history, the overall argument
would be greatly weakened. Of course, many of the historical judgment
elements could satis@ the situation in various ancient wars,20
and others are open to contrary interpretive analysis. But, with a
number of the distinctive elements, there are simply too many converging
lines of evidence pointing to the Jewish War to allow for this
argument's hasty a priori dismissal.21
The reason why the early date and mainly contemporary explanation
of the book is daily winning fresh adherents among unbiased thinkers
of every Church and school, is partly because it rests on so simple and
secure a basis, and partly because no other can compete with it. It is
indeed the only system which is built on the plain and repeated
statements and indications of the Seer himsel~ and the corresponding
events are so closely accordant with the symbols as to make it certain
19. Stuart, Apo.a~pse 1:273,
20. But the relevance factor and the contemporary expectation of Revelation work
against such a diversion.
21. Many of these will have to be left to an exegetical and expository commentary
on Revelation itself, on which the present writer is currently working. For illuminating
insights, the reader can peruse the following Stuart, Apocalypse, vol. 2. P, S, Desprez, The
Apoca~pse FulfWed, 2nd ed. (London: Longrnan, Brown, Green, Longmans, 1855). Thomas
Whittemore, A ComrndaV on tlu Reuefution of St John, the Divine (Boston: James M.
Usher, 1856), pp. 45ff. J. Stuart Russell, Tb Parouma: A Stu~ of the New T~tament Doctrine
of Our hrd's Second Coming, 2nd ed. (Grand Rapids: Baker, 1887 1983), pp. 365-537.
David Chilton, Th Days of V2ngeance: An Exposition of th Book of Reoelataon (Fort Worth:
Dominion Press, 1987), pamim.
240 'BEFORE JERUSALEM FELL
that this scheme of interpretation is the only one that can sttrvive.22
A quick survey of some of the more general correspondences will
introduce the matter. Following this, we will list some of the more
specific correspondences.
Gezw-al Correspondaues
Some of the judgment and tribulation scenes in Revelation are
borne out of contemporary persecutions (e.g., Rev. 1:9), others expect
a soon occurrence of the awful events. These scenes veritably breathe
"a time of wild commotion,"23 horrendous devastation, and destructive
upheaval. As has been pointed out earlier, the era of the late
A.D. 60s is far more tumultuous than that of the 90s, and probably
of any era up to the overthrow of the Roman empire centuries later.
In A.D. 64 Nero initiated the first and probably the most horrible24
persecution of Christianity by Rome. From A.D. 67 to 70 the Jewish
War was oficially engaged and raged with peculiar severity, laying
waste the Temple, Jerusalem, and much of Judea. In A.D. 68-69 the
Roman Civil Wars nearly toppled mighty Rome, bringing the horror
of war upon the capital city itsel~ during the "Year of the Four
Emperors."
Such events as these are easily capable of stylized expression in
many of Revelation's passages. The persecution of the Christians by
Nero is evidently portrayed in Revelation 13.25 The destruction of
Israel ("the land") during the Jewish War is the main theme of the
book (Rev. 1:7) and is evident in Revelation 6, 8, 9, 11, 14-18.26 The
woes upon the Roman Beast are indicated in Revelation 13:10;
19:19-21. These represent some of the general allusions in Revelation
22. Frederic W. Farrar, The Ear~ Days M Chs-Manity (New York: Cassell, 1884), p.
434.
23. F. J. A. Hort, Tk Apoca~pse ofSt. John: I-III (London: Macmillan, 1908), p. xxvi.
24. Schaff wrote "the Neronian persecution was the most cruel that ever occurred"
(Philip Schaff; HirtoU of th Christian Chxrch, 8 vols. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, (1910)
1950 1 :386).
25. Other evidences of martyrdom and persecution (in Rev. 6; 11; 17) seem to be
related to Jewish persecution, the main focus of the book being on the judgment of the
"tribes of the land" (Rev. 1 :7). See Chap. 17.
26. Briefly, the evidence for the identifying ofJerusalem as the Harlot is based on the
following (1) Both are called "the great city" (Rev. 148; 11:8). (2) The Harlot is tilled
with the blood of the saints (cp. Rev. 16:6; 17:6; 18:21, 2% with Matt. 23:34-48; Luke
13:33; Acts 7:51 -52). (3) Jerusalem had previously been called by pagan names quite
Th Looming Jewish War 241
to historical events. We will now give in more detail a few of some of
the more remarkable and more specific historical correspondences.
Revelation 6:3-4
In Revelation 6:3-4 the Greek text emphasizes the disruption of
"the peace "". "And when He broke the second seal, I heard the second
living creature saying, 'Come.' And another, a red horse, went out;
and to him who sat on it, it was granted to take peace from the earth
(ujv Eip@qv ~K r~c yfjg), and that men should slay one another;
and a great sword was given to him." This well suits the temporary
breach of the famed Pax Romana, which was ruptured by the events
of the A.D. 60s.
By about 4 B. C., Augustus had finished most of his constitutional
reforms in the Roman Empire, and the Roman system of government
was fixed for the next several decades. Thk stability is typified by the
succession, which remained in the Augustan line until the suicide of
Nero A.D. 68. Politically, this was the period of the Pax Romana
throughout the Empire. Augustus' inauguration of an Age of Peace
at the Ludi Samdares in 17 B.C. (Horace Carmen saeadare) was not an
empty gesture. In the Roman Empire proper, this period of peace
remained comparatively undisturbed until the time of Nero. Like two
harbingers of revolution, however, a fire broke out in Rome in 64 and
compatible with the designation "Babylon" (cp. Rev. 148 and 17:5 with 11 :8). (4) Rome
could not fornicate against God, for only Jerusalem was God's wife (Rev. 17:2-5, cp. Isa.
1 :2Q Jer. 31:31). (5) There is an obvious contrast between the Harlot and the chaste
bride (cp. Rev. 17:2-5 with Rev. 21: lK) that suggests a contrast with the Jerusalem below
and the Jerusalem above (Rev. 21 :2; cp. Gal. 424ff.; Heb. 12: 18ff.). The fact that the
Harlot is seated on the seven-headed Beast (obviously representative of Rome) indicates
not identity with Rome, but alliance with Rome against Christianity (cp. Matt. 23:37ff.;
John 19: 16-16; Acts 17:7).
Fuller discussion and elaboration of the identity of the Harlot as Jerusalem can be
found in the following Russell, Parousia, pp. 482E. Vacher Burch, Anthropolo~ and the
A@oca@@ (London: Macmillan, 1939), pminr. Cornelis Vanderwaal, Search t/u Scr@-
ture~, trans. Theodore Plantinga, vol. 10 Hebrews – Revelation (St. Catharines, Ontario
Paideia, 1979), pp. 79K. Desprez, Apoca~pse Fuljilled, ,bamim. Comelis Vanderwaal, Hal
Lirza&y and Biblical Prop/wu (Ontario Paideia, 1978), pp. 104-139. J. Massyngberde Ford,
Rsvefution. Anchor Bible (Garden City: Doubleday, 1975), pp. 277K.; Chilton, Days @_
Vmgeme, pp. 42 lff. Also a forthcoming commentary by the present autboc The Divora
of Israel: A Comrnznkmy on Revelatwn.
This view has also been held by F. Abauzit, J. G. von Herder, J. J. Wetstein, J. C.
Harenberg, F. G. Hartwig, Holweerda, K. Schilder, and others (for documentation see
Stuart, Apoca~pse 1:278 and Vanderwaal, Hal Lindsy p. 117).
242 BEFORE JERUSALEM FELL
a war at Zion in 66; after Nero's death, the whole Roman Empire was
ablaze and at war during the year 69. The same homo novm who
conquered the Jews, Vespasian, was soon able to restore the power
of the emperors, but upon a new foundation.27
This was spoken of by Origen as the "abundance of peace that began
at the birth of Christ. "28 Latourette states that "the internal peace
and order which Augustus achieved endured, with occasional interruptions,
for about two centuries."29
Due to this famed, empire-wide peace, Christ's prophetic reference
to "wars and rumors of wars" (Matt. 246, 7), which were to
occur in His "generation" (Matt. 24:34), serves as a remarkably
significant "sign" (Matt. 24:3-8, 33) of the end of the Temple and the
Jewish age (Matt. 24:2, 3, 15-16). And as such they find expression
also in John's version of the Olivet Discourse, i.e., Revelation.30
Revelation 6:4
The same text indicates civil war in "the land": "it was granted
to take peace from the earth (lit., the land), and that men should slay
one another" (Rev. 6:4). Josephus is emphatic in his assessment of
the calamities that befell the Jews. He insists that the carnage wrought
by internecine strife in Israel wreaked more destruction upon themselves
than that brought upon them by the Remans.31 One citation
will suffice as evidence:
There were, besides, disorders and civil wars in every city; and all
those that were at quiet from the Remans turned their hands one
against another. There was also a bitter contest between those that
were fond of war, and those that were desirous of peace. . . . Insomuch
that for barbarity and iniquity those of the same nation did no
27. Reicke, New Estarnent Era, pp. 109-110.
28. Origen, Remans 1:3.
29. Kenneth Scott Latourette, A Htitov of Christiani~, 2nd cd., 2 vols. (New York
Harper & Row, 1975) 1:21. See also Joseph Ward Swain, %Harper HistoV of CiuiliZatwn,
vol. 1 (New York: Harper & Bros., 1958), pp. 15 lff. Wdliston Walker, A Histoty of tb
Christian Church, 3rd ed. (New York: Scribners, 1970), p. 3. John Laurence von Mosbeim,
Htitoy rfChri.rtiani~ in the First Three Centuria, vol. 1 (New York: Converse, 1854), p. 11.
30. It is interesting that John is the only writer of a canonical Gospel who omits
Christ's Olivet Discourse announcement of the destruction of the Temple and the end
of the age. It would seem almost certain that this is due to the fact that he had treated
it earlier in his Revelation. See earlier discussion.
31. War$ 43:2, 10. Cp. 46:IQ 5:1:1,5.
Th Looming Jewish War 243
way differ from the Remans; nay, it seemed to be a much lighter thing
to be ruined by the Remans than by themselves.32
It surely is not a mere accidental correspondence with history that
is indicated in the fateful war scenes in Revelation. Whereas war with
one's enemy generally has the effect of unifying a people, Israel's
situation was the exact opposite of this.
Revelation 6:5-6
Another extremely significant factor in the Jewish War (probably
one of the three leading factors of devastation, along with the assault
of the mighty Roman imperial forces and the internal civil strife) was
the horrible gravity of the famine that ravished Jerusalem's beleaguered
populace. The famine is graphically depicted in Revelation
6:5-6: "And when He broke the third seal, I heard the third living
creature saying, 'Come.' And I looked, and behold, a black horse;
and he who sat on it had a pair of scales in his hand. And I heard
as it were a voice in the center of the four living creatures saying, 'A
quart of wheat for a denarius, and three quarts of barley for a
denarius; and do not harm the oil and the wine.'" Again Josephus
gives emphatic testimony to the role of famine during the War.33 One
piece of evidence from Josephus will illustrate the matter:
But the famine was too hard for all other passions, and it is destructive
to nothing so much as to modesty; for what was otherwise worthy of
reverence, was in this case despised; insomuch that children pulled
the very morsels that their fathers were eating, out of their very
mouths, and what was still more to be pitied, so did the mothers do
as to their infants. . . .34
Revelation 7:1-7
The protection of Jewish Christians in Jerusalem is indicated in
Revelation 7:1-7 where the well-known sealing of the 144,000 is
revealed. It has been shown already that this refers to the providential
protection of those Christians ofJewish lineage who were "in the
land." An extremely interesting and famous piece of tradition informs
32. Wars 43:2.
33. Wars 5:10:2-5; 5:12:3; 6:3:1-5. It may even be that the reference to "the oil and the
wine" finds expression in the adulteration of the sacred oil and wine by the Jews
themselves; Wars 5:13:6.
34. Wars 5:10:5. See also Eusebius, ficlawr.dical Hwtory 3:6.
244 BEFORE JERUSALEM FELL
us that the Jewish Christians in Jerusalem escaped the city before it
was too late,35 possibly either at the outset of the War or during one
of its providential lulls. Eusebius records the situation thus:
But the people of the church in Jerusalem had been commanded by
a revelation, vouchsafed to approved men there before the war, to
leave the city and to dwell in a certain town of Peres called Pella. And
when those that believed in Christ had come thither from Jerusalem,
then, as if the royal city of the Jews and the whole land of Judea were
entirely destitute of holy men, the judgment of God at length overtook
those who had committed such outrages against Christ and his apostles,
and totally destroyed that generation of impious men.t6
Although contradicting Eusebius on some minor points, Epiphanies
also records this account of the escape of the Christians from Jerusalem.
37 Josephus records a major lull in the War, which would provide
opportunity for escape: when Vespasian was distracted by Rome's
Civil War.38
Revelation 11:1,2
The reference to the treading of the Temple's courts (Rev. 11:1,
2) will be bypassed, in that it has been treated already .39 We should
be aware, however, of its relevance here as a distinctive and nonrepeatable
episode of the Jewish War.
Revelation 14:19-20
The role of the bridle-depth blood in Revelation 14:19-20 is as
fascinating as terri~ing: "And the angel swung his sickle to the earth,
and gathered the clusters from the vine of the earth, and threw them
into the great wine press of the wrath of God. And the wine press
was trodden outside the city, and blood came out from the wine
press, up to the horses' bridles, for a distance of two hundred miles."
35. Brandon is surely wrong when he asserts that the Jewish church perished in the
conflagration that overtook Jerusalem; S. G. F. Brandon, % Fall of Jerusalem and the
Christian Church: A Study of the Eflects of the Jewish Ozwthrow of A.D. 70 on Chtitiani@
(London: SPCK, 1957), chap. 9. He follows Schwartz, Goth. Nachr. (1907) 1:284.
36. Ecclesiastical Hi.rtoT 3:5:3.
37. Epiphanies, Heresies 29:7 and De Men.suti et Pondetibur 15. James J. L. Ratton wen
argues that Revelation was written for the very purpose of warning the Christians to flee
Jerusalem; Tk Apoca@pse ofSt. John (London: R. & T. Wa.shbourne, 1912), pp. 3-5.
38. Wars 49:2.
39. See Chap. 11.
Tb Looming Jwish War 245
Perhaps one of the most surprising correspondences between the
graphic portrayal of Revelation and the historical events of the Jewish
War is this one. Josephus records for us several episodes of the Jewish
War that most reasonably could be a fulfillment of this prophecy:
But as many of these were repulsed when they were getting ashore
as were killed by the darts upon the lake; and the Remans leaped out
of their vessels, and destroyed a great many more upon the land: one
might then see the lake all bloody, and full of dead bodies, for not one
of them escaped. And a terrible stink, and a very sad sight there was
on the following days over that country; for as for the shores, they
were full of shipwrecks, and of dead bodies all swelled. . . .W
. . . .
At which fight, hand to hand, fifteen thousand of them were slain,
while the number of those that were unwillingly forced to leap into
Jordan was prodigious. There were besides, two thousand and two
hundred taken prisoners. . . . Now this destruction that fell upon the
Jews, as it was not inferior to any of the rest in itself, so did it still
appear greater than it really was; and this, because not only the whole
of the country through which they had fled was filled with slaughter,
and Jordan could not be passed over, by reason of the dead bodies
that were in it, but because the lake Asphaltitis was also full of dead
bodies, that were carried down into it by the river. . . .41
. . . .
In Jerusalem the dead obstructed the very lanes with their dead
bodies, and made the whole city run down with blood to such a degree
indeed that the fire of many of the houses was quenched with these
men's blood.42
Those evangelical scholars who doubt that the symbols of Revelation
have any correspondence with historical events should carefully
note this particular one. A more exact fulfillment is scarcely imaginable.
Revelation 16:21
One final reference will be given at
16:2 1a we read: "And huge hailstones,
this juncture. In Revelation
about one hundred pounds
40. Wan 3:10:9.
41. Wars 4:7:5-6.
42. Wars 6:%5.
246 BEFORE JERUSALEM FELL
(KJV: one talent) each, came down from heaven upon men." It is
quite impossible that such gargantuan hailstones can be accounted
for under the most aggravated of meteorological conditions. Yet Josephus
records for us an event so visually and effectually similar that what
he records must be the fulfillment of the Revelational prophecy:
The en,gines i.e., catapults, that all the legions had ready prepared
for them, were admirably contrived; but still more extraordinary ones
belonged to the tenth legion: those that threw darts and those that
threw stones, were more forcible and larger than the rest, by which
they not only repelled the excursions of the Jews, but drove those
away that were upon the walls also. Now, the stones that were cast,
were of the weight of a talent, and were carried two furlongs and
further. The blow they gave was no way to be sustained, not only by
those that stood first in the way, but by those that were beyond them
for a great space. As for the Jews, they at first watched the coming of
the stone, for it was a white colour.43
Not only is the size mentioned the same (one talent, Gk: -raJavnatoc),
but the boulders thrown by the Roman catapults were white
colored, as are hailstones. Would not the effect of the catapulting
stones be virtually that of a hailstorm of such proportions?
Although there are many other such military evidences along
these lines that could be forwarded, these will suffice to illustrate the
point: Revelation's prophecies find an impressive fi-dfillment in almost
literal fashion in the Jewish War. And since Revelation is accepted
by evangelical scholars as canonical and prophetic, these events must
lie in the near future fi-om John's perspective. Thus, a pre-A.D. 70
date for the composition of Revelation is necessary.w
The Correspondence of Time Frames
Not only are there historical events associated with the Jewish
War that fit nicely with the statements of Revelation, but there are
certain time-frame indications that find a most interesting correspondence
with those presented in Revelation. And although these occur
in a highly symbolic book and in symbolic contexts, their literal
time-function should not be discounted as wholly non-historical.
43. War$ 5:6:3.
44. It must be remembered that these evidences are not the sole ones. All the
argumentation given above is to be understood when considering these. These are more
or less supplementary strands.
The Looming Jewish War 247
Such should not be done even in non-canonical apocalyptic literature,
as fantastic as it is. For instance, the "thirty years" of the apocalyptic
2 Esdras 3:1 seems clearly to indicate a specific time-frame:
A date of thirty years after A.D. 70 corresponds, at least in very
general terms, with the date which on other grounds seems probable
for the composition of 2 Esdras 3-14. From the vision recorded in chs.
11-12 it seems clear that this work was composed during the reign of
Domitian (A.D. 91-96). Unless the thirty years are totally out of step
with reality, the evidence of 3:1 suggests that we should think in terms
of the end, rather than the beginning, of Domitian's reign. . . .45
Thus, it is not without parallel in the more extravagant apocalyptic
literature. The three time-frame statements to be investigated are
found in Revelation 9:5, 10; Revelation 11:2;% and Revelation 13:5.
Revelation 9:5, 10
Revelation 9:1-12 clearly seems to speak of demons under the
imagery of locusts (perhaps due to their destructive power and the
gnawing agony they cause). A great many commentators agree that,
stripped of the poetical imagery, the locusts are really demons and
their sting is that of the pain and influence of demonic oppression.
This seems to be quite clearly the case in light of their origin (the
bottomless pit, 9:1 -3), their task (they afllict only men, 9:4), and their
ruler ("the angel of the abyss," surely Satan, 9:11 ). Were this a
reference to the Roman army (or some other later army), their
restriction from killing (Rev. 9:5, 10) would be inexplicable in that
the Roman army actually did destroy thousands of the Jews in its
assault. But if these are demons, and the physical killing is left to the
armies (which are seen later, Rev. 9: 13ff.), the picture begins to come
into focus.
If demons are in view in this passage, this fits well with requirements
of the early date and the prophetic expectation of Christ in
Matthew 12:38-45. There Christ teaches that during His earthly
45. R. J. Coggins, in Coggins and M. A. Knibb, The First and Second Boob of Esdras.
Cambridge Bible Commentary on the New English Bible (London: Cambridge, 1979),
p. 115. Metzger agrees; Bruce M. Metzger, "The Fourth Book of Ezra," in James H.
Charlesworth, cd., Old ?%tamsnt Pseude$igrapha, 2 vols (Garden City, NY: Doubleday,
1983) 1:520,
46. Rev. 11:3 will not be treated. Almost certainly its time-frame is concurrent with
the one in 11:2 and the events are simultaneous.
248 BEFORE JERUSALEM FELL
ministry He had cast out demons in Israel, but because of Israel's
resistance to His message, the demons will return in greater numbers
within the "generation. "47
In Revelation 9:5 and 10 we read: "And they were not permitted
to kill anyone, but to torment for jive months; and their torment was
like the torment of a scorpion when it stings a man. . . . And they
have tails like scorpions, and stings; and in their tails is their power
to hurt men for five months." To what special period might this
five-month period of demon-affliction correspond? With what events
might we expect that a demonically enhanced torment was involved?
Remarkably, we have record of a five-month episode in the Jewish
War that serves well as fulfillment of such prophetic expectations.
A good case can be made for the era of the final siege ofJerusalem
by Titus, after his legions hemmed in the defenders of Jerusalem in
A.D. 70. Regarding the time-frame involved, it should be noted that
"Titus began the siege ofJerusalem in April, 70. The defenders held
out desperately for five months, but by the end of August the Temple
area was occupied and the holy house burned down, and by the end
of September all resistance in the city had come to an end ."48 E. W.
G. Masterman notes that "the siege commenced on the 14th of Nisan,
70 A.D., and ended on the 8th of Elul, a total of 134 days."49 This is
a period, less just a few days, of virtually five months' duration. And
surely it was the most grim and distressing period of Jerusalem's
resistance, for the hand-writing was on the wall: there was no escape.
It was just a matter of time before the enraged Roman legions would
pour into the beleaguered city to cruelly slaughter men, women, and
children. The situation was hopelessly desperate for the defenders.
Although Josephus makes no express reference to demonical
possession, that the period was a demon-enhanced era seems evident
from the record of the case. Josephus does record the extreme barbar-
47. Had not the Jews been presented with the Kingdom of God by Christ (Mark 1:15;
Matt. 13)? Are there not but two spiritual kingdoms: the Kkgdom of God and the
kingdom of Satan (Acts 26: lb Co. 1:13)? Having rejected God's Kingdom might it not
be expected that they would receive the fi-uit of such rejection: initiation into the kingdom
of Satan, attended by his nefarious angelic hosts?
48. F. F. Bruce, New T~tarrwnt Histov (Garden City, NY: Anchor Books, 1969), p.
382. Cfi Josephus, Wars 5.
49. E, W. G. Masterman, "Jerusalem" in International Standard Bible Err@opedia ISBE
(Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1915) 3:1619. Schaff computes the dates according to the
Julian calendar as fmm April, 70, to August 10, 70; Hi.stou 1:396.
T/u Looming Jewish War 249
ity and iniquity of Jerusalem during these final days. The cruelty
especially of the seditious leaders of the revolt (the sicarii, or zealots)
increased rapidly as the final pall of doom settled over the exhausted,
terrified, starving, dying, and doomed masses:
The madness of the seditious did also increase together with their
famine, and both those miseries were every day inflamed more and
more. . . .50
It is therefore impossible to go distinctly over every instance of these
men's iniquity. I shall therefore speak my mind here at once
briefly: – That neither did any other city ever suffer such miseries,
nor did any age ever breed a generation more fruitful in wickedness
than this was from the beginning of the world. . . .51
And here I cannot but speak my mind, and what the concern I am
under dictates to me, and it is this: — I suppose that had the Remans
made any longer delay in coming against those villains, the city would
either have been swallowed up by the ground opening upon them, or
been overflowed by water, or else been destroyed by such thunder as
the country of Sodom perished by, for it had brought forth a generation
of men much more atheistical than were those that suffered such
punishments; for by their madness it was that all the people came to
be destroyed .52
Surely such barbarous conduct against their own families and
friends is evidence of the fulfillment of Jesus' prophecy of covenantal
curse in Matthew 12:40.53 Had not Jesus spoken to the leaders of the
Jews and said they were of their father the devil (John 8:44)? Stier is
not amiss in his summary of the condition of the Jews who set
themselves "against the Lord and His anointed" (Acts 4:25ff.) in the
first century: "In the period between the ascension of Christ and the
destruction of Jerusalem, this nation shows itsel~ one might say, as
if possessed by seven thousand devils. "54 This condition became even
more dramatically evident in the final days of the defense of Jerusalem,
as Henderson rightly obsemed: "Meanwhile that unhappy city
during all this year of grace had been prey to the most bloody
50. Wan 5:10:2.
51. Wars 5:10:5.
52. Wars 5:13:6.
53. For other Josephianic references, see Wan 5:1 :1; 5:1 :4-5; 5: 12:4; 68:5.
54. In Reden Jew 2:187. Cited in Russell, Parwsia, p. 412n.
250 BEFORE JERUSALEM FELL
anarchy and demoniacal fanaticism. "55
So here we have in Revelation a time period of five months that
is of demonic character. The striking applicability of Revelation 9 to
the five month siege of Jerusalem by Titus is surely confirmatory of
the identi$ing of the Revelational prophecies with the events of the
Jewish War. That being the case, this passage serves also as a
subsidiary demonstration of the pre-A.D. 70 date of Revelation.
Revelation 11:2
This verse has been dealt with rather extensively previously,
nevertheless, we will now address the time-frame element contained
within it. The verse reads: "And leave out the court which is outside
the temple, and do not measure it, for it has been given to the nations;
and they will tread under foot the holy city for forty-two months."
Here stands a specifically defined era during which the "holy city"
(i.e., Jerusalem, the historical capital and geographical center of
Israel) will be down-trodden. This periodic statement is followed up
by its equivalent in the next verse, which speaks of 1260 days (42
months x 30 days each = 1260 days). If, indeed, the pre-A.D. 70
date is correct, then this time-frame must somehow comport with the
Jewish War.
Now a most interesting historical fact throws light upon this
passage, if we hold the pre-A.D. 70 date. And that fact is that it took
almost exactly forty-two months for Rome to get into a position to
destroy the Temple in the Jewish War of A.D. 67-70. Now it is true
that the Jewish Revolt, at least from the Jewish side, actually began
with a series of events caused by the overbearing and careless Roman
procurator Gessius Florus from May through November in the year
66.56 Because of the procurator's mismanagement, Neapolitanus, a
Roman military tribune, was sent from Antioch by Cestius Gallus,
the Roman governor of Syria, to urge restraint upon the Jews.57 The
effort was in vain, for by November, Cestius Gallus had to march
55. B. W. Henderson, 2% Lt~e and Pritipate of thz Empswr Nero (London: Methuen,
1903), p. 374.
56. Including scattered riots, the cessation of sacrifices for the emperor, and sporadic
warfare. See Reicke, Nao Testarrwnt Era, pp. 254K. Bruce, Histmy, pp. 378K. Henderson,
Lzfi and Prin@ak, pp. 368ff. W. H. C. Frend, The Rire of Christiaai~ (Philadelphia:
Fortress, 1984)> pp. 12~.
57. Josephus, Wars 2:14-17.
The Looming Jewish War 251
against Judea because of the resultant disaffection and widespread
mayhem.
The events of the year A.D. 66, however, should not be considered
a judgment against the Jews. This is because the Jewish forces
actually (and mysteriously!) gained the upper hand against the troops
of the governor of Syria. Josephus records the retreat of Cestius in
haste and fear amid the rejoicing of the Jews:
There it was that Cestius stayed two days; and was in great distress
to know what he should do in these circumstances; but when, on the
third day, he saw a still greater number of enemies, and all the parts
round about him full of Jews, he understood that his delay was to his
own detriment, and that if he stayed the longer there, he should have
still more enemies upon him.
That therefore he might fly the faster, he gave orders to cast away
what might hinder his army's march. . . . But when his troops were
soon trapped in difficult circumstances by the Jews the distress they
were at last in was so great, that they betook themselves to lamentations,
and to such mournful cries as men use in the utmost despair:
the joyful acclamations of the Jews also, as they encouraged one
another, echoed the sounds back again, these last composing a noise
of those that at once rejoiced and were in a rage. Indeed these things
were come to such a pass, that the Jews had almost taken Cestius's
entire army prisoners, had not the night come on, when the Remans
fled to Bethoron, and the Jews seized upon all the places round about
them, and watched for their coming out in the morning.
And then it was that Cestius, despairing of obtaining room for a
public march, contrived how he might best run away. . . . But the
Jews went on pursuing the Remans as far as Antipatris; after which,
seeing they could not overtake them, they came back and took the
engines, and spoiled the dead bodies; and gathered the prey together
which the Remans had left behind them, and came back running and
singing to their metropolis; while they had themselves lost a few only,
but had slain of the Remans five thousand and three hundred footmen,
and three hundred and eighty horsemen. This defeat happened
on the eighth day of the month Dius, in the twelfth year of the reign
of Nero. . . .58
Now the Jews, after they had beaten Cestius, were so much elevated
with their unexpected success, that they could not govern their zeal,
58. Wars 2:19:7-9.
252 BEFORE JERUSALEM FELL
but, like people blown upintoaflalmeby their good fortune, carried
the war to remoter places .59
As Bruce sees it: "This initial success for the revolt discredited the
moderates and leaders of the peace-party in the public eye, and
encouraged the insurgents to organize the whole Jewish population
of Palestine for the war of liberation. "W Almost immediately the
Jews, though by no means united, "betook themselves to make preparations
for the war with the Remans."61
After this humiliating misfortune for the governor, word was sent
to the emperor Nero to apprise him of the situation regarding "the
great distress" Cestius was m" 6.2 AS Josephus records it: "When Nero
was informed of the Remans' ill success in Judea, a concealed consternation
and terror, as is usual in such cases, fell upon him."63
Nero deliberated on the matter and then formally commissioned a
seasoned general, Vespasian, to make preparations to put down
what had become a revolt against Imperial Rome and the Pax
Roman.a.G4 "Vespasian received his commission from Nero, i.e., the
war was declared . . . , the first part of Feb., A.D. 67."65 This was
the formal declaration of war by Rome against Israel. Shortly thereafter,
Vespasian entered northern Israel on his march to Jerusalem
going forth "conquering and to conquer" (Rev. 6:2). According to
Bruce, Vespasian "arrived the following spring i.e., the spring of
A.D. 67 to take charge of operations."m This marked the official
entry of Roman imperial forces into the campaign. Jerusalem and the
Temple finally fell and were utterly destroyed by Titus, Vespasian's
son, in late summer, A.D. 70: "Titus began the siege of Jerusalem in
April, 70. The defenders held out desperately for five months, but
by the end of August the Temple area was occupied and the holy
house burned down, and by the end of September all resistance in
the city had come to an end."67
59. Wars 3:2:1.
60. Bruce, Hi.rtoT, p. 381. See also Henderson, L#e and Pnmipate, pp. 370tY
61. War~ 2:22:1.
62. Wars 2:20:1.
63. Wars 3:1:1.
64. Wars 3:1:2-3.
65. Macdonald, Lz~ and Wrihg~ ofJohn, p. 212 n. 1. See also Schafi Hidov 1:395.
66. Bruce, Histou, p. 381.
67. Bruce, Hi.stoV, p. 382. See Josephus, Wars 7:1. Except for three renegade pockets
of resistance scattered about the Judean wilderness, the war was considered won by
Th Looming Jewi.rh War 253
Now from the time of this official imperial engagement in the
Jewish War (early Spring, A.D. 67) until the time of the Temple's
destruction and Jerusalem's fall (early September, A.D. 70) is a
period right at the symbolic figure of 1260 days (or 42 months or 31/2
years). Indeed, counting backward from early September, A.D. 70,
we arrive 42 months earlier at early March — in the Spring of 67!
Surely this figure cannot be dismissed as sheer historical accident.
Though the time-frame undoubtedly carries with it the foreboding
spiritual connotation associated with a broken seven (31/2 is one-half
of the perfect number 7), nevertheless, we are also driven to recognize
the providence of God in these historical afEairs. In keeping with
divinely ordained symbol, in fulfillment of divinely inspired prophecy,
it did, as a matter of fact, take Rome 3' /2 years to trample Israel and
the city of Jerusalem totally. Under the providence of God the
symbolic "broken seven" became the literal time-frame ofJerusalem's
doom. Stuart surmises: "After all the investigation which I have been
able to make, I feel compelled to believe that the writer refers to a
literal and definite period, although not so exact that a single day,
or even a few days, of variation from it would intet+ere with the object
he has in view. It is certain that the invasion of the Romans lasted
just about the length of the period named, until Jerusalem was
taken. "68
Thus, again, we have a time-frame that is wholly consistent with
historical circumstances associated with the Jewish War – a timeframe
that lends further strength to the pre-A.D. 70 argument for
Revelation.
Revelation 13:5-7
In Revelation 13:5-7 the events are separated in time and geography
from the events of the Jewish War, but, as we will see, the
circumstances well fit the pre-A.D. 70 era. The passage before us
reads:
Rome when the capital of the nation and the strongest point of resistance fell. Titus
returned to Rome by 71 to celebrate a joint victory celebration with his father, Vespasian,
now the new emperor. See also Reicke, New 2%tanwnt Era, pp. 266ff. Walker, Histoty, p.
30. C. F. D. Motde, The Birth of New Tmtanwnt, 3rd ed. (New York: Harper & Row,
1982), pp. 172tI Masterman,ZSBE41619.
68. Stuart, Apoca~@e 2:218.
254 BEFORE JERUSALEM FELL
And there was given to him a mouth speaking arrogant words and
blasphemies; and authority to act for forty-two months was given to
him. And he opened his mouth in blasphemies against God, to
blaspheme His name and His tabernacle, that is, those who dwell in
heaven. And it was given to him to make war with the saints and to
overcome them; and authority over every tribe and people and tongue
and nation was given to him.
Many commentators recognize the reference to the Beast spoken
of here (see Rev. 13:1, 2, 4) as a reference to imperial Rome. We
demonstrated previously, that the Beast's seven heads represent both
the seven hills of Rome and the succession of seven emperors from
the time of Julius (cE Rev. 17:9, 10). We also saw that the number
of the Beast (considered specifically, rather than generically) is a
cryptogram expressive of the name "Nero Caesar. " We need not
re-argue these identifications here, although they should be kept in
mind. Clearly this is first century Rome in view, and specifically the
most beastly of its emperors, Nero. But where does the time-frame fit
in?
In light of the evidence above, the "war" of the Beast against "the
saints" undoubtedly refers to the Neronic persecution of Christianity,
the first imperial persecution of the faith. This is not Nero's war
against the Jews, for these persecuted people are designated by John
as "saints" (Rev. 13:7). These are those whose names have "been
written from the foundation of the world in the book of life of the
Lamb who has been slain" (Rev. 13:8). His assault upon them is
tantamount to "blasphemies against God" (Rev. 13:6).
The express delimitation of the Beast's persecution of the saints
is a period of 42 months. Interestingly, the Neronic persecution lasted
just about that very length of time:
The persecution of Nero began about the middle or latter part of
Nov. A.D. 64, at Rome. It ended with the death of Nero, which was
on the ninth of June, A.D. 68, for on that day Galba entered Rome
and was proclaimed emperor. Here again is 3 + years or 1260 days
with sufficient exactness; for the precise time of forty-two months
expires about the middle or end of May, and Nero died in the first
part ofJune. . . .69
69. Stuart, Apoca~pse 2:469. See also J. C. 1. Gieseler, Textbook of Ecclesiostid Hi.rtog+
trans. by Francis Cunningham, vol. 1 (Philadelphia: Carey, Lea, and Blanchard, 1836),
Tb Looming Jmish War 255
With frets such as these before us, how can we doubt what interpretation
ought to be put upon the times thus designated in these respective
passages?70
There are those who view the Neronic persecution as lasting but a few
months in A.D. 64 – 65. The later deaths of Peter and Paul and the
evil role of Nero in early Christian literature, however, militate
against such a delimitation. A number of scholars have held to the
persecution as lasting until Nero's death.71
Conclusion
It is most remarkable that not only in Revelation do we find large
patterns of evidences befitting the A.D. 60s era, but also even many
smaller details. It surely is no accidental similarity that allows us to
p. 56; John Rutherford, "Persecution," in ISBE 42325; von Mosheim, History of Chtitiani~
1:142.
70. Stuart, Apoca~pse 2:469.
71. See for example:
T. W. Camon, The Chrirtian Testimony Throughout the Ag~ (London: Pickering & Inglis,
n.d.), p. 30.
Henry Cowan, Landnurrks of Church History to the ReJn-m.ation, 2nd ed. (Philadelphia:
Westminster, 1904), p. 6.
Franz Xavier Funk, A Manual of Church HistoU, trans. Luigi Cappadelta, 5th ed. (St.
Louis: B. Herder, 1904) 1:40.
Justo L. Gonzalez, The Story of ChristianiQ, vol. 1: lhr~ Church to the Dawn of the
Reformation (San Francisco: Harper & Row, 1984), p. 36.
Samuel G. Green, A Handbook of Church Histoy from the Apostokc Era to the Dawn #tlu
Reformation (London: Religious Tract Society, 1904), p. 64.
George Gregory, Dr. Grego@ HirtoV ofttu Christian Church jiom thz Earliest Perio& to the
Presad Time, ed. Martin Ruter (Cincinnati: Roff and Young, 1832), p. 28.
John Fletcher Hurst, Short Hi.rtoy of the Chrirtian Church (New York: Harper, 1892), p. 18.
George Johnson, Jerome D. Hannan, and M. Dominica, The Stoty of the Church: Her
Foundtig, Miss-ion, and Progress (New York Benziger, 1947), p. 39.
Johann Heinrich Kurtz, Church Histoty, 9th cd., trans. John McPherson (New York:
Funk and Wagnalls, 1888), p. 77.
William Jones, The History of the Christian Church from thz Birth of Christ to the Eighteenth
Ceni%ry, 5th cd., vol. 1 (London: WllliamJones, 1826), p. 163.
Joseph McSorely, An Outline of the Histoy of the Chwch ~ Centuries, 9th ed. (St. Louis:
B. Herder, 1954), p. 22.
MI1O Mahan, A Church Hirtoy of the First Seven Centuries to the Close of the Sixth General
Council, 3rd ed. (New York: E. and J. B. Young, 1892), p. 26.
Andrew Miller, Church Hirtory j%a ttu First to the Twenttith Cenhty, 2nd ed. (Grand
Rapids, Zondervan, 1873 1964), p. 122.
256 BEFORE JERUSALEM FELL
find not only particular personages (Nero), cultural structures (the
Jewish Temple), and historical events (the Neronic Persecution and
the Jewish War) that harmonize well with the Neronic era, but even
time-frames for these that fill out the picture of the era of which John
wrote. It can be no other than in the mid- to late A.D. 60s.
W. Simpson, An Epitome of the Hi.stov of the Chri.rtian Church During h First 7?wee Centuries
and of th Reformation in England, 3rd ed. (Cambridge Macmillan, 1857), p. 67.
David Churchill Somervell, A ShJrt Histoty of our Religion (New York: Macmillan,
1922), p. 129.
David D. Van Antwerp, Church Histmy, 5th cd., vol. 1 (New York: James Pott, 1884),
pp. 27, 42.
B. F. Westcott, i% Two Empirss: Ttu Church and tb World (London: Macmillan, 1909),
pp. 32ff.
Edward Backhouse, Ear~ Church Hi.stoy to the Death of Con.stuntiw, 3rd ed. (London:
Simpkin, Marshall, Hamilton, Kent, 1892), p. 11.
W. D. Killen, The Ancient Chwch: Its Hi.stoiy, Doctrh, Worship, Constitution, Traced for th
First Three Hundred Years, ed. John Hall (New York Anson D. F. Randolph, 1883), pp.
147tI
PART N
ALLEGED DOMITIANIC
EVIDENCES EXAMINED
15
INTRODUCTION TO
DOMITIANIC EVIDENCES
Despite the wealth of compelling arguments for an early date
cited heretofore, late date advocacy persists among the majority of
scholars, even to the point of dominance in academic circles. Although
in the nineteenth century the evidence cited in defense of a
late date for Revelation derived almost solely from external considerations,
such is certainly not the situation in the current debate since
the early 1900s. 1 Current late date literature vigorously argues from
the internal evidence. In order the better to secure the early date
argument in terms of the internal evidence, we must address those
contrary arguments put forward by late date advocates.
Though there are a variety of approaches to the evidence arrayed
by late date advocates, it would appear that the modern case concentrates
its focus upon four basic arguments. These arguments are
capably summarized by evangelical scholar and late date advocate
Leon Morris in his commentary on Revelation. The order of his
listing will be followed.
First, what Morris calls "the principal reason for dating the book
during" Domitian's reign is that Revelation "contains a number of
indications that emperor-worship was practised, and this is thought
to have become widespread in Domitian's day."2 Second, "indica-
1. Terry could write in the late 1800s that no "critic of any note has ever claimed
that the later date is required by any internal evidence" (Milton S. Terry, Bzblicd
Hermmdics Grand Rapids: Zondervan, rep. 1974, p. 240). Interestingly, Morris's
more recent late date commentary hardly even considers the external evidence at all!
(Leon Morris, Ths Revelation of St. John Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1969, pp. 34ff.).
Guthrie places it as his last argument (Donald Guthrie, New Tedammt Introduction, 3rd
ed. Downers Grove, IL: Inter-Varsity Press, 1970, p. 956).
2. Morris, Rewlation, p. 35. See also Robert H. Mounee, Tlu Book of Revelation. New
International Commentary on the New Testament (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1977),
259
260 BEFORE JERUSALEM FELL
tions that Revelation was written in a time of persecution" accord
"muchbetter with Domitian. "3
Third, "the book shows evidence of knowledge of the Nero rediuivw
myth" that "took time to develop and Domitian's reign is about
as early as we can expect it."4
Fourth, the "indication is that the churches of Asia Minor seem
to have a period of development behind them. This would scarcely
have been possible at the time of the Neronic persecution."5
Let us, then, turn our attention to a seriatim consideration of the
substance of these arguments.
pp. 32ff. R. H. Charles, The Revelation 0J51. John, 2 vols. International Critical Commentary
(Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark, 1920) 1 :xciv-xcv. James Moffatt, 2% Revelation of St.
John the Divirw, in W. R. Nicoll, cd., Englishman's Greek Tutanwnt, vol. 5 (Grand Rapids:
Eerdmans, rep. 1980), pp. 307-316. Henry Barclay Swete, Comrrwntu~ on Reaelution
(Grand Rapids: Kregd, 1906 1977), p. ci. Guthrie, Zrztwdkztion, pp. 949-951. Werner
Georg Kummel, Introduction to the New Te@umrmt, 17th cd., trans. Howard C. Kee (Nashville:
Abingdon, 1973), pp. 467-468. William Barclay, The fielation ofJohn, 2 vols. Daily
Study Bible (Philadelphia: Westminster, 1960) 1:18.
3. Morris, Revelation, p. 36. See also Moffatt, Revelation, pp. 317-320 (though his
approach iS much diflerent> ~. P. 313). Charl=) R~e~at~O. 1 :xciv-x~. Mounce, R~la%
pp. 33-34. Guthne, Introaiution, pp. 951-953. Kiimmel, Introduction, p. 467.
4. Morns, Revelation, p. 37. See also Mounce, Reueiation, p. 34. Charles, Revelatwn
1 :xcv-xcvii. Moffatt, Revelation, pp. 305-307. Swete, Riwelation, pp. ci-cii. Kiimmel, Introduction,
p. 468. Guthrie, Introdudwn, pp. 953-954.
5. Morris, Rewlation, p. 37. See also Mounce, Revelutwn, pp. 34-35. Swete, Revelation,
'pp. c-ci. Kiimmel, Introduction, p. 469. Guthrie, Introduction, pp. 954-956.
16
THE ROLE OF
EMPEROR WORSHIP
As we saw in our last chapter, Leon Morris considers the argument
from the role of emperor worship in Revelation to be "the
principal reason" for dating the book during Domitian's reign. Undoubtedly
his statement finds widespread concurrence among late
date advocates. Morris, Guthrie, Mounce, and others list it as either
their first or most conclusive argument. 1 For Moffatt the role of
emperor worship in Revelation is virtually conclusive: "When the
motive of the Apocalypse is thus found in the pressure upon the
Christian conscience exerted by Domitian's emphasis of the imperial
cultus, especially as that was felt in Asia Minor, any earlier date for
the book becomes almost impossible."z He stated quite positively
that the emperor worship that could be found no earlier than Domitian
was the "peril which formed at once the occasion and the theme
of John's Apocalypse."3
Perhaps Charles put the argument as vigorously and ably as
possible:
There is no evidence of any kind to prove that the conflict between
1. Donald Guthrie, New Tedamznt introduction, 3rd ed. (Downers Grove, IL: Inter-
Varsity Press, 1970), p. 949. Robert H. Mounce, The Book of Reuelatiorz. New International
Commentary on the New Testament (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1977), p. 32. See also
its prominence in Andre Feuillet, T/u Apocalypse, trans. Thomas E. Crane (Staten Island:
Alba House, 1965), p. 91; Henry C. Thiessen, Introduction to the New Te~tmncmt (Grand
Rapids: Eerdmans, 1943), p. 323; Isbon T. BeckWith, The Apoca~pse of John: Studies in
Introduction (Grand Rapids Baker, 191 7 1967), p. 201; to name but a few.
2. James Moffatt, The Revelation of St. John th Ditim, in W. R. Nicoll, cd., Englishman's
Gredc Testament, vol. 5 (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, rep. 1980), p. 317. See also James
Moffatt, An Znkdudion to hLi.k-rature of the Nsw Testamd (Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark,
1911), p. 503.
3. Moffatt, Revelation, p. 307.
261
262 BEFORE JERUSALEM FELL
Christianity and the imperial cult had reached the pitch of antagonism
that is presupposed in the Revelation before the closing years
of Domitian's reign. In the reign of Vespasian the Christians, as
Moffatt . . . writes, "seem to have enjoyed a comparative immunity
. . . and our available knowledge of the period renders it unlikely
. . . that anything occurred either under him or Titus to call forth
language so intense as that of the Apocalypse." Moreover, Vespasian
did not take his claims to divinity seriously. But Domitian insisted
on the public recognition of these claims, and in the last year of his
reign he began to persecute the Church in the capital of the Empire.
. . . Compliance with the claims of the imperial cult was made
the test of loyalty to the Empire. In the earlier days, Christians had
been persecuted for specific crimes, such as anarchy, atheism, immorality,
etc. But in the latter days of Domitian the cotiession of the
name of Christ (cf Rev. 2:3, 13; 3:8; 12:11; 20:4) was tantamount
to a refusal to accede to the Emperor's claims to divinity, and thereby
entailed the penalty of death (13: 15).4
Torrey scorns such argumentation when he states regarding the
verses found in Revelation 14:9-11; 15:2; 16:2; 19:20; 20:4: "Now
these, together with the rest of chapter 13, are the on~ allusions to the
imperial cult which are to be found in Revelation, and they all refer
definitely to the Beast of 13:18. If the background of the reign of
Domitian is to be found at all in the book, it must be sought
elsewhere."5 With Torrey we are compelled to agree. Let us then
consider the validity of the late date argumentation on this matter,
all the while keeping in mind the previously established arguments
for Revelation's early date. The cracks in the emperor cult argument
will be exposed in the light of three very basic considerations.
The Dif13culty of
Dating the Emperor Cult
Initially it would seem that the arguments based on the emperor
cult as presented above should serve as valuable clues to the date of
Revelation. Unfortunately, despite the confidence with which the
watermark of the emperor cult on the pages of Revelation is presented,
there are fundamentally erroneous assumptions involved that
4. R. H. Charles, T/u Revelation of.St, John, 2 vols. International Critical Commentary
(Edinburgh T. &T. Clark, 1920) 1 :xciv-xcw.
5. Charles C. Torrey, T/u A@ca@e ofJohn (New Haven: Yale, 1958), p. 68.
2% Role of Emperor Worship 263
undermine the arguments. For the emperor cult to serve as a dating
indicator capable of overthrowing the wealth of early date evidence
rehearsed heretofore, it must be demonstrated rather decisively that
the cult as presented in Revelation "is a post-Neronian phenomenon
that is "almost impossible" in the Neronian era.
It is more than a little interesting that some of the leading
exponents of this evidence — the leading late date evidence — are not
as fully persuaded themselves of the evidential value of the cult as
one would like, if their evidence is to be compelling proof. Morris,
who terms this evidence "the principal reason" for a Domitianic date,
is a case in point. He at first briefly presents the evidence for his
"principal reason" for the Domitianic date. He then concludes by
stating "on the score of emperor-worship Domitian's reign is the
most probable by far." But he seems to oiler reason for hesitation:
"But dating this accurately is more difficult. Thus Julius Caesar had
been worshiped as a god during his lifetime, and, while Augustus
was more cautious, there were temples in his honor in some of the
provinces. . . . It is true that, from the time of Nero on, the cult
tended to grow in some areas and it is barely possible that the
references in Revelation could be understood of some period under
or after Nero.'yG
Despite his own arguments in regard to the emperor cult, and
despite the fact it serves as his first argument for a Domitianic dating
of Revelation, Guthrie's hesitation is harmonious with Morris's, and
for the same reasons: "No knowledge of any rescript or edict has
survived fi-om the first century which enforced emperor worship. . . .
Although the emperor worship presupposed in the Apocalypse
would well suit the later period of Domitian's reign, there is no
conclusive evidence that it could not have occurred earlier."7 Even
as vigorous and as liberal a late date proponent as Moffatt speaks of
the cult evidence as "almost impossible" under Nero.s As Robinson
observes "the growth of the imperial cultus is again something which
it is almost impossible to date with confidence."g
6. Leon Morris, The Revelation of St. John (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1969), p. 35.
7. Guthrie, Introduction, pp. 950-951.
8. Moffatt, Revelation, p. 317. Emphasis mine.
9. John A. T. Robinson, Redating the New Testanunt (Philadelphia: Westminster,
1976), p. 236.
264 BEFORE JERUSALEM FELL
The Pre-Neronkm History of the Emperor Cult
We should not only notice the slight hesitancy regarding the
emperor cult in these scholars, but also the rationale for such: (1)
Emperor worship is traceable as far back as Julius Caesar, almost a
century before Nero's death. (2) Formal temples erected for the
worship of the emperor are known to exist as far back as Augustus's
reign (c. 29 B.C.). 10 (3) The method for the enforcement of emperor
worship under Domitian is unknown, despite the claims that only
beginning with Domitian could the slaying of non-participants have
existed (as per the Revelation evidence).' 1 (4) The first ofjcial imperial
evidence of the enforcement of emperor worship is after both
Nero and Domitian, in the reign of Trajan. These are serious problems
besetting any confident employment of emperor worship in the
argument. Especially are these problematic in light of the quite
precise chronological observations supportive of the early date in
Revelation 17 (the enumeration of the "kings") and the existence of
the Temple, which is known to have perished in A.D. 70. The
emperor cult argument is slippery, as we shall see. At this juncture
a brief survey of the history of the emperor cult will prove helpful in
illustration of the fact that Revelation's evidence is not incompatible
with a pre-Domitianic date. 12
Julius
Apparently, Julius Caesar learned from Cleopatra "the political
advantage of the deifications of royalty – the Pharaohs of Egypt
having been accepted by their subjects as incarnate deities."'3 Earlier
10. Edward C. Selwyn, i% Christian PropMs and th Proplsdic Apoca~pse (London:
Macmillan, 1900), p. 122.
11. As will be noted in the next major section, there is a great deal more substantial
evidence for a Neronic persecution of Christianity than for a Domitianic.
12. For fuller discussion of the development of the imperial cult see the following
Adolf Harnack, Th Mi.rsion and Expansion of Chri.strianip in the First Three Centuti (New
York: Putnam's, 1908) 1:2:9. B. W. Hendemon, 77se Lt~e and Prim"pak of th Em@or NeYo
(London: Methuen, 1903), pp. 347ff., 434fT Herbert B. Workman, Perwcutwn of the Ear~
Church (Oxford: 0x60rd University Press, 1906 1980), pp. 94ff. Kenneth Scott, "The
Identification of Augustus with Romulus-Quinnus," Transactions and Proceedings of the
Ametian Philologs"ca! Association %82-105. Lily Ros Taylor, The Diuinity of h Roman
Emperor (Middletown, Corm.: American Philological Association, 1931), passim. Kurt
Aland, A Htitory of Christian@, vol. 1: From the Beginnings to&77sreshold of the R@matwn,
trans. James L. Schaaf (Philadelphia Fortress, 1985), pp. 18-22.
13. Arthur Weigall, Nero: Emperor oj_Rams (London: Butterworth, 1933), p. 110.
The Role of Emperor Worship 265
in Roman history Roman generals had been worshiped in their
lifetime by "the effusive Oriental" and "the excitable Greek," but
Roman countrymen "laughed and left such follies to the conquered
races ." 14 It was with "Julius Caesar that there came a change" 15
in this regard. Caesar's "statue was placed in the temple of Quinnus
(deified Romulus), another near those of the kings of Rome, and yet
another showed him with a globe beneath his feet; his chariot was set
up opposite the temple of Juppiter sic. As a triumphator he was
granted the right to a gilded chair." 16 Indeed, Caesar was granted
the title "Juppiter Julius."17
Beckwith notes that "Julius Caesar boldly claimed divine honor."18
In fact, he was described in an inscription at Ephesus (one of the
cities to which Revelation is addressed) as "god manifest and common
saviour of the life of man" 19 and "To the goddess Roma and the
divine Julius .'>*o Suetonius notes in this regard that "he allowed
honours to be bestowed on him which were too great for mortal
man: . . . temples, altars, and statues beside those of the gods; a
special priest, an additional college of the Superci, and the calling of
one of the months by his name."21
After Julius's death the Roman Senate "decreed his con.secratio,
apotheosis, and the appearance of a comet was regarded as a sign of
his reception into the company of the superior divinities."22 From
that time forth he began to be called "Divw luliu.s."23 In addition, a
formal cult of Divw lulius was established24 and "an altar to him was
erected in the forum." Ratton notes that "his statue was put up in the
14. B. W. Henderson, FicIe Roman Emperors (Cambridge University Press, 1927), p. 27.
15. Ibid.
16. H. H. Scullard, From the Gracchi to Nero, 2nd ed. (New York: Barnes and Noble,
1963), p. 152.
17. Ibid., p. 152. See also M. Cary, A Hi.stoT of Rome Down to the Reign of Constantine,
2nd ed. (New York: St. Martin's, 1967), p. 421. J. L. Ratton, The Apoca~pse of St. John
(London: R.& T. Washbourne, 1912), p. 48. See Dio Cassius, Roman Histoiy 47:18:33.
18. Beckwith, Apoca~pse, p. 198.
19. Scullard, Gratchi to Nero, p. 152.
20. Beckwith, Apoca~pse, p. 199.
21. Suetonius, Julius 76.
22. Beckwith, Apoca~pse, p. 198. See Cicero, Philippt 2:110. Suetonius, Julius 38. Dio
Cassius, Roman Hirtory 446:4. Lactantius, Divine Imtituta 1:15.
23. Cicero, Philipfi" 2:110. Suetonius, Dwus Iulius.
24. Scullard, Gracchi to Nero, p. 152.
266 BEFORE JERUSALEM FELL
temple of Quirinius, with the inscription 'To the invincible God.' "25
Suetonius records for us the actions of Lucius Antonius: "Some write
that three hundred men of both orders were selected from the prisoners
of war and sacrificed on the Ides of March like so many victims
at the altar raised to the Deified Julius."26 Here in Suetonius we find
at least this one occurrence of the slaying of men as altar victims for
the deified Caesar.
Several men set up a twenty foot high marble column inscribed
with "To the Father of his Country. " Suetonius notes that "at the
foot of this they continued for a long time to sacrifice, make vows,
and settle some of their disputes by an oath in the name of Caesar."27
He was said to have been accepted as a god not only by a formal
decree of the Senate, "but also in the conviction of the common
people."2 8 Clearly emperor worship was well under way in Julius
Caesar's day.
Augwtu.s
Although Augustus forbade divine honors to himself in Rome,*g
Tacitus and Suetonius record the fact that he sanctioned his worship
and the erection of altars elsewhere.30
As early as 29 B.C. he allowed the diets of Asia and Bithynia to erect
temples and shew divine honour to him at their places of assembly,
Pergamus and Nicomedia. The high priest of the new temple was
appointed year by year, and he was the most eminent dignitary in the
province.31
Beckwith notes that on his death the Senate voted Augustus
consecration and that a temple was erected in the Palatine area of Rome.
Furthermore, "his worship spread rapidly in both the Asian and
25. Ratton, A/mca@%e, p. 48. See Dio Cassius, Roman History 47:18:33.
26. Suetonius, Augwtw 15.
27. Suetonius, Julius 85.
28. Ibid. 88.
29. He disdained the title CCDorniniu/' ("Lord") because he preferred to be known as
the governor of free men rather than the master of slaves; Suetonius, Aug@u.s 53.
30. Suetonius, Augustus 52-53; Tacitus, Annals 1:10. Cp. BeckWith, A@alypse, p. 199.
Henderson, Five Roman Emperors, pp. 27iT Fnedrich Dusterdieck, Critical and Exegetical
Handbook to th Revelation of John, 3rd cd., trans. Henry E. Jacobs (New York Funk and
Wagnalls, 1886), p. 51. Ratton, Apocaly@e, p. 48.
31. Selwyn, Chri.rtian Prophets, pp. 122-123.
T/w Role of Emperor Worship 267
western provinces, so that Philo could say, that everywhere honors
were decreed to him equal to those of the Olympian gods. "32
In one respect Octavian had long been unique: since 42 B.C. and the
consecrations of Divus Julius he had been the son of a god, "Divi
filius." After Actium his birthday was celebrated as a public holiday;
libations were poured in his honour at public and private banquets;
from 29 B.C. his name was added to those of the gods in hymns; two
years later he received the title of Augustus; his Genius, perhaps in
12 B. C., was inserted in oficial oaths between the names of Juppiter
and the Di Penates; in A.D. 13 an altar was dedicated by Tiberius in
Rome to the Numen Augusti.33
Accordingly Suetonius noted of the emperor Claudius that he used
as "his most sacred and frequent oath 'By Augustus.' "34
Interestingly, late date advocate Moffatt has an excellent summary
of the cult as it existed in focus on Augustus:
Since the days of Augustus, the emperor had been viewed as the
guardian and genius of the empire, responsible for its welfare and
consequently worthy of its veneration. It was a convenient method of
concentrating and expressing loyalty, to acknowledge him as entitled
to the prestige of a certain sanctity, even during his lifetime. . . . Its
political convenience, however, lent it increasing momentum. Gradually,
on the worship of the Lares Augusti in Italy and the capital . . .
and on the association of the imperial cultus with that of dea Roma (to
whom a temple had been erected at Smyrna as far back as 195 B.C.),
the new canonisation rose to its height, never jealous of local cults,
but thriving by means of its adaptability to the religious syncretism
of the age. It was the reli~ous sanction of the new imperialism. It had
temples, sacrifices, choirs (as at Smyrna), and even a priesthood (the
"Socales Augustales") of its own.
For obvious reasons the cult flourished luxuriantly in the provinces,
particularly in Asia Minor, where the emperor was often regarded
as an incarnation of the local god or named before him. . . .
The cultus, attaching itself like mistletoe to institutions and local rites
alike, shot up profusely; polytheism found little trouble in admitting
the emperor to a place beside the gods, and occasionally, as in the
case of Augustus and Apollo, or of Domitian and Zeus, "the emperor
32. Beckwith, Apoca@e, p. 199.
33. %ullard, G%chi to Nero, p. 242.
34. Claudius, 11.
268 BEFORE JERUSALEM FELL
was represented as the deity incarnate in human form." . . . At
Thera, for example, a pagan altar has been found which was dedicated
'to the almighty Caesar, the son of God." . . . This divi >lius
title was one of the most common and least conventional of what John
called blasphmias onomatu.35
Archaeologists have in their possession a decree of the Synod of
the Province of Asia dated about 9 B.C. that has been presemed in
a letter of the proconsul to the cities of Asia.3G The decree commends
the celebration of "the natal day of the most divine Caesar Augustus
."37 This document notes very clearly that the emperor Augustus
was deemed to be the cause of Rome's glorious condition:
~hether the natal day of the most divine Caesar Augustus is to
be observed most for the joy of it or for the profit of it – a day which
one might justly regard as equivalent to the beginning of all things,
equivalent, I say, if not in reality, at any rate in the benefits it has
brought, seeing that there was nothing ruinous or that had fallen into
a miserable appearance that he has not restored. He has given another
aspect to the universe, which was only tm ready to perish, had not
Caesar – a blessing to the whole of mankind – been born. For which
reason each individual may justly look upon this day as the beginnings
of his own life and physical being, because there can be no more
of the feeling that life is a burden, now that he has been born. . . .
Resolved by the Greeks of the province of Asia, on the proposal of the
High-priest Apollonius. . . : Whereas the Providence which orders
the whole of human life has shown a special concern and zeal and
conferred upon life its most perfect ornament by bestowing Augustus,
whom it * for his beneficent work among mankind by filling him
with virtue, sending him as a Savior, for us and for those who come
after us, one who should cause wars to cease, who should set all things
in fair order, and whereas Caesar, when he appeared, made the hopes
of those who forecast a better future look poor compared with the
reality, in that he not only surpassed all previous benefactors, but
left no chance for future ones to go beyond him, and the glad tidings
35. Moffatt, Rswlution, pp. 307-309. Selwyn offers additional helpful insights into the
role of the Asiarch and Ashiarchess (the Asiarch's wife) in promoting the imperial cult,
noting that these would eventually bring Christians "face to face with the imperial
cultus" ( ChrzMan Prophets, p. 124).
36. Howard Clark Kee, Ti& Otigim of ChrMani@ Sources and Docwnmts (Englewood,
NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1973), pp. 74-76.
37. Cited in Ibtd., p. 76.
Tb Role of Emperor Worship 269
Greek, euangelia which by his means went forth into the world took
its rise in the birthday of the God. . . .38
It should not surprise us that "in the first century of the Christian
Era all the emperors claim this supreme achievement i.e., divinity
for themselves," nor that "the emperors after Augustus especially
promoted the cult of the emperor."39 As a matter of fact, "the practice
in its worst form, that is the worship of the living emperor, had been
known in Asia as early as the reign of Augustus.')w
Tibenus
In response to just this matter Christ's remarks during the reign
of Tibenus regarding the tribute money must be understood (Matt.
22: 15-22; Mark 12: 13-17; Luke 20:20-26). Here Christ taught that
lovers of the true God should "render unto God" those things that
are God's (i.e., worship), and only "render unto Caesar" those things
that are rightfully his (i.e., taxes). This clearly is a not-so-subtle
exposure of the error of emperor worship. Indeed, as Deissmann
notes, this is a tacit protest against emperor worship under Tiberius
(A.D. 14-37).41 History records that at Tiberius's death "eleven cities
of Asia struggled for the honour of erecting a temple to his memory."
42 The Senate finally awarded the temple to Smyrna,43 one of
the seven cities to which one of the Seven Letters in Revelation was
written.
Caligtda
What need we say of Caligula? Caligula was clearly a madman
possessed with the conviction of his own deity, for he "put the head
of his own statue upon one of the Olympian Jupiter, and had himself
saluted as Jupiter Latiaris, erecting a temple to himself, with special
priests and sacrifices."~ Josephus records for posterity the deluded
pretensions of CaliWla:
38. Ibid.
39. Aland, Histo?y ~Chri.rtiantp 1:18, 19.
40. Arthur S. Peake, The Revekrtwn ofJohn (London: Joseph Johnson, 1919), p. 84.
41. Adolf Deissmann, LightJom the Amid East (New York 1922), p. 252.
42. Workman, Persecution, pp. 40K.
43. Selwyn, Christian ProptMs, p. 123.
44. Dusterdieck, Revelation, p. 51. See Suetonius, Caligula21.
270 BEFORE JERUSALEM FELL
Now, one of these ambassadors from the people of Alexandria was
Apion, who uttered many blasphemies against the Jews; and, among
other things that he said, he charged them with neglecting the honours
that belonged to Caesar; for that while all who were subject to the
Roman empire built altars and temples to Caius, and in other regards
universally received him as they received the gods, these Jews alone
thought it a dishonourable thing for them to erect statues in honour
of him, as well as to swear by his name.45
His notorious plan to have his image erected in the Temple at
Jerusalem and the providential prevention of it is well-known, thanks
to Josephus.%
Claudius
Suetonius and Tacitus both record the up and down position of
Claudius as a god: he was voted a god upon his death only to have
his enrollment among the gods annulled by Nero but later restored
by Vespasian.47 Even during his life a temple was erected to him at
Colchester.48
Clearly then, the emperor cult had a prominent role in the
political and social life of the Roman empire from at least the times
of Augustus – well before Domitian, and even before Nero.49 In fact,
"the student of the struggle of contending religions in the early
Roman Empire cannot neglect the history of the State cult, even if
he feels disposed to slight it as no true example of religion. The seer
of Patmos did not so misapprehend its force."5° Even late date
advocates note that "the blasphemous title of dizw.s, assumed by the
emperors since Octavian (Augustus = seh-dm) as a semi-sacred title,
implied superhuman claims that shocked the pious feelings of Jews
and Christians alike. So did t9sog and 6EOti vi6g that, as the inscriptions
prove, were freely applied to the emperors, from Augustus
45, Antiquities 18:8:1. See also Eusebius, Ecdaia.sttil Hirtoty 2:5-6.
46. Antiquities 18:82.
47. Suetonius, Claudius 45; Ntm 9; 33; Tacitus, Annals 12:69.
48. Workman, Persecution, p. 40.
49. Helpful in pointing out the existence of emperor worship and the role of emperors
in various cults during the reigns of Caligula, Claudius, and Nero is E. Mary Smallwood,
cd., Documents Illu.stratmg ttu Priru-i>ates of Gaius Claaduis amd Nero (Cambridge: University
Press, 1967), entries #124-163, pp. 48-53.
50. B. W. Henderson, 77u Stu@ ofbnan Hirtog+ 2nd ed. (London: Duckworth, 1921),
p. 102.
T7w Role of Emperor Worship 271
onwards ."51
Let us turn now to a consideration of the matter from the
perspective of Nero's reign in particular.
The Evidence of the Emperor
Cult in Nero's Reign
Nero was surely the most evil Roman emperor of the first century
A. D., excelling both Caligula and Domitian in notoriety. He was also
jealously vain in his proud appreciation of his own artistic talents.52
Surely his character would compel him to take advantage of the
emperor cult to feed his debased nature and vain pretensions. Although
there are some who doubt his use of the emperor cult,53 there
is significant evidence of not only Nero's endorsement of it, but even
intimations that it may have been a factor (one of several) behind
both the persecution of Christians in Rome in A.D. 64 and the
overthrow of Israel in the Jewish War.
Nero was particularly infatuated with Apollo; he even claimed
"the title 'Son of Apollos,' and appeared ostentatiously in this role."54
Seneca, one of young Nero's tutors and a powerfiul influence in the
era of Nero's reign designated the Quinqzumnium Neronti,55 convinced
Nero that he was destined to become the very revelation of Augustus
and of Apollo.56 Speaking as Apollo, Seneca praised Nero:
He is like me in much, in form and appearance, in his poetry and
singing and playing. And as the red of morning drives away dark
night, as neither haze nor mist endure before the sun's rays, as
everything becomes bright when my chariot appears, so it is when
Nero ascends the throne. His golden locks, his fair countenance, shine
like the sun as it breaks through the clouds. Strife, injustice and envy
collapse before him. He restores to the world the golden age. 57
51. Moffatt, Rswlation, p. 429.
52. Miriam T. Griffin, Nero: The End of a DyaQSU (New Haven: Yale, 1984), chaps. 9
and 10.
53. E.g., ibid., pp. 215ff.
54. Bo Reicke, Th New Testati Era: % World of the Bible >om 500 B.C. to A.D. 100,
trans. David E. Green (Philadelphia Fortress, 1968), p. 206.
55. The Emperor Trajan even noted that this era was one superior to any other
governmental era. For an able and enlightening discussion of Seneea's influence on Nero
and the nature of these five auspicious years, see Henderson, Ltfe and Prim"pate, chap. 3.
56. Seneca, On ClenuT 1:1 :6; Apocolocyntoti (Pumpkintjicatwn) 415-35.
57. Ethelbert Stauffer, Christ and th Cmsars: Historical Sketctws, 3rd ed., trans. K. and
R. Gregor Smith (Philadelphia: Westminster, 1955), p. 52.
272 BEFORE JERUSALEM FELL
Suetonius remarks of Nero that "sincehe was acclaimed as the
equal of Apollo in music and of the Sun in driving a chariot, he had
planned to emulate the exploits of Hercules as well."m An inscription
from Athens speaks of him as: "All powerful Nero Caesar Sebastos,
a new Apollo."59 Nero's portrait appears on coins as Apollo playing
the lyre. 'o He appears with his head radiating the light of the sun on
copper coins struck in Rome and at Lugdunum: one type has Genius
sacrificing over an altar on the reverse side; another has Apollo
Citharoedus on the reverse.G1 As Reicke notes of Nero's Apollo fascination:
"All this was more than pomp and show: Nero strove with
deadly seriousness to play the role of Augustus and Apollo politically,
the former primarily from 54 to 61, the latter fi-om 62 to 68."62
As early in his reign as 55 the Senate erected a statue of Nero "on
divine scale in the Temple of Mars at the Forum Augusti . . . ,
thus introducing the cult into the city of Rome."G3 The statue was the
same size as that of Mars in Mars's own Temple.w That Nero
actually was worshiped is evident from inscriptions found in Ephesus
in which he is called "Almighty God" and "Saviour."G5 Reference to
Nero as "God and Savior" is found in an inscription at Salamis,
Cyprus. 'G In fact, "as his megalomania increased, the tendency to
worship him as ruler of the world became stronger, and in Rome his
features appeared on the colossus of the Sun near the Golden House,
while his head was represented on the coinage with a radiate crown.
Members of the imperial house also began to receive unheard of
honours: . . . Nero deified his child by Poppaea and Poppaea herself
after their deaths. All this was far removed from the modest attitude
58. Suetonius, Nero 53.
59. Smallwood, Docurmnts, p. 52 (entry #145).
60. C. H. V. Sutherland, Coinage in Roman Imperial Pol@, 31 B.C. – A.D. 68 (1950),
p. 170, plate 16:6. See also Hendemon, Nero, p. 394. Michael Grant, Roman Imperial
Mmy (New York: Barnes and Noble, 1954) and Grant, Roman Hi.stoy jiom Coinr: Sorm
Uses of the Im~"al Coinage to tlu Historian (London: Cambridge, 1958).
61. Smallwood, Documds, p. 52 (entries #143-144). A. Momigliano, l%e Cambridge
AdHi.rtoV, vol. 10: The Augwtan Empire, 44 B.C. – A.D. 70 (New York: Macmillan,
1930), p. 493.
62. Reicke, New Testament Era, p. 241.
63. Ibid. See Tacitus, Ands 13:81.
64. Robinson, Redating, p. 236.
65. Ratton, Afioca~@e, p. 48.
66. Smallwood, Domnents, p. 142 (ent~ #142).
The Role of Emperor Worship 273
of Augustus. "67 Indeed, of the imperial development of the emperor
cult it should be noted that "Caligula and Nero, however, abandoned
all reserve. Caligula was pictured on coins with the halo of the sun
god Helios, and Nero was represented as Apollo."G8 The archaeological
record evidences that "the emperors, around whose heads, from
the days of Nero onwards, had gilded darting rays in token of their
divine solar ancestry."6g Nero clearly "demanded divine honors while
. . . still alive. " 70
In A.D. 66 Tiridates, King of Armenia, approached Nero in
devout and reverential worship, as recorded by Dio Cassius:
Indeed, the proceedings of the conference were not limited to mere
conversations, but a lofty platiorm had been erected on which were
set images of Nero, and in the presence of the Armenians, Parthians,
and Romans Tlridates approached and paid them reverence; then,
after sacrificing to them and calling them by laudatory names, he took
off the diadem from his head and set it upon them. . . .
. . . .
Tiridates publicly fell before Nero seated upon the rostra in the
Forum: "Master, I am the descendant of Arsaces, brother of the kings
Vologaesus and Pacorus, and thy slave. And I have come to thee,
my god, to worship thee as I do Mithras. The destiny thou spinnest
for me shall be mine; for thou art my Fortune and my Fate."71
Dio notes also the fate of one senator who did not appreciate Nero's
"divine" musical abilities: "Thrasaea was executed because he failed
to appear regularly in the senate, . . . and because he never would
listen to the emperor's singing and lyre-playing, nor sacrifice to
Nero's Divine Voice as did the rest.'"z
Stauffer points out the beginning of a new theology of the emperor
cult that was born under Nero:
67. Scullard, Gnrcchi to Nero, p. 371. See also Henderson Five Roman Emperors, p. 29.
68. Eduard Lohse, The New 'l%tarrwrst Environmd, trans. John E. Steely (Nashville:
Abingdon, 1976), p. 220. See also Paul Johnson, A History of Christiant~ (New York
Atheneum, 1979), pp. 6ff.
69. Workman, Persecution, p. M. See also Cambridge Anah.t HistQv 10493.
70. Joseph Ward Swain, The Har@r History of Civilization, vol. 1 (New York: Harper,
1958), p. 229.
71. Roman History 62:5:2.
72. Roman History 62:26:3.
274 BEFORE JERUSALEM FELL
Who is the heavenly saviour whose coming the peoples have awaited?
The emperor!
The offkial expression of this political philosophy is the classical coin.
On the obverse of the coin we see the portrait of the ruler, decorated
with the marks and emblems of deity, and fi-amed in titles of divine
dignity. For the ruler is the god who had become man. The reverse
of the coin usually depicts the most symbolically potent event in the
life of the ruler, his aduent. . . . It was in the age of the emperors
that the political advent philosophy reached its heyday. The first to
have the word ADVENTUS inscribed on the coins was Nero. A
Corinthian coin of Nero's reign, from the year 67, has on the obverse
the type of the emperor in divine nakedness, adorned only with the
laurel wreath of Apollo, and on the reverse the flagship with the
imperial standard and above it the inscription ADVENTUS
AUGUSTI, the Arrival of the August One. The divine Apollo once
came by sea to the Greek mainland. The Roman emperor now makes
his entry into Greece by sea, in order that he may be worshiped as
Apollo incarnate.73
Thus, of Paul's first Roman imprisonment, it can be noted that:
History has few stranger contrasts than when it shows us Paul preaching
Christ under the walls of Nero's palace. Thenceforward, there
were but two religions in the Roman world: the worship of the
Emperor and the worship of the Saviour. The old superstitions had
been long worn out; they had lost all hold on educated minds. There
remained to civilised heathen no other worship possible but the
worship of poweq and the incarnation of power which they chose
was, very naturally, the Sovereign of the world. This, then, was the
ultimate result of the noble intuitions of Plato, the methodical reasonings
of Aristotle, the pure morality of Socrates. All had ftiled, for
want of external sanction and authority. The residuum they left was
the philosophy of Epicurus, and the religion of Nerolatsy. But a new
doctrine was already taught in the Forum, and believed even on the
Palatine. Over against the altars of Nero and Pcsppaea, the voice of a
prisoner was daily heard, and daily woke in groveling souls the
consciousness of their divine destiny.y4
In A.D. 67 Nero went to Greece where he remained for more
73. Stauffer, Christ and th Caesars, p. 38.
74. W. J. Coneybeare and J. S. Howson, l% Lz~e and Epistles of St. Paul, vol. 2 (New
York: Scribners, 1894), pp. 434-435.
The Role of Emperor Worship 275
than a year petiorming as a musician and an actor in the four
Grecian festivals, the Olympian, Pythian, Nemean, and Isthmian.75
Soon thereafter "Nero was actually deified by the Greeks as 'Zeus,
Our Liberator.' On the altar of Zeus in the chief temple of the city
they inscribed the words 'to Zeus, our Liberator' namely Nero, for
ever and ever; in the temple of Apollo they set up his statue; and they
called him 'The new Sun, illuminating the Hellenes,' and 'the one
and only lover of the Greeks of all time.' "76 When Nero returned to
Rome, he returned to the triumphant praise of the city as he entered
the palace and Apollo's temple on the Palatine. 77 Dio records the
scene thus:
The city was all decked with garlands, was ablaze with lights and
reeking with incense, and the whole population, the senators themselves
most of all, kept shouting in chorus: "Hail, Olympian Victor!
Hail, Pythian Victor! Augustus! Augustus! Hail to Nero, our Hercules!
Hail to Nero, our Apollo! The only Victor of the Grand Tour, the
only one from the beginning of time! Augustus! Augustus! O, Divine
Voice! Blessed are they that hear thee.'"s
After Nero's death, the emperor Vitellius even offered sacrifices
to the spirit of the deceased Nero. This matter was so serious that
Vespasian had to make the effort to check this Nero cult.'g
Later descriptions of Nero portray his lust for deity. Book 5 of
the Sibylline Oracles, is a Jewish composition written for the most
part sometime after A.D. 80.80 In this book of the Oracles "the evil
of Nero has the same three dimensions as the evil of Rome: he is
morally evil, he was responsible for the destruction of Jerusalem (VS.
150), since the Jewish war began in his reign, and he claimed to be
God."81
The mid-second century Christian pseudepigraphic work Ascen-
75. Henderson, L$e and Priru+bate, pp. 381ff.
76. Weigall, Nero, p. 276. Weigall has noted that a memorial stone found at Kardiza
in 1888 contained Nero's declaratory speech to which the Greeks responded with
accolades of his divinity. A fuller text of the Greek response to Nero's speech can be found
in Henderson, Lz~e and Pnm@ate, p. 391.
77. Henderson, Nero, p, 394.
78. Dio Cassius, Rom Histoy 62:20:5.
79. ibid. 65:4. See Weigall, Nero, pp. 299K
80. J. J. Collins, "Sibylline Oracles," in James H. Charlesworth, cd,, Old Testament
Pseudepigra@a, 2 VOIS. (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1983) 1:390.
81. Ibid., p. 395, notes y and b2.
276 BEFORE JERUSALEM FELL
sion of Isaiah "foretells" Beliar's (i.e., Nero's)** reign: "Beliar . . .
shall descend . . . in the form of a man, a lawless king, a slayer of
his mother, who . . . will persecute the plant which the Twelve
Apostles of the Beloved have planted . . . He will act and speak in
the name of the Beloved and say 'I am God and before me there has
been none else.' And all the people in the world will believe in him,
and will sacrifice to him. "83
Emperor Worship and the
Neronian Persecution
In Revelation 13 (and in scattered verses elsewhere in Revelation)
there is apocalyptic imagery that, on the basis of the above
evidence, is easily applicable to the era of Nero. Revelation 13: lb-8
reads:
And I saw a beast coming up out of the sea, having ten horns and
seven heads, and on his horns were ten diadems, and on his heads
were blasphemous names. And the beast which I saw was like a
leopard, and his feet were like those of a bear, and his mouth like the
mouth of a lion. And the dragon gave him his power and his throne
and great authority. And I saw one of his heads as if it had been slain,
and his fatal wound was healed. And the whole earth was amazed
and followed afiter the beast; and they worshiped the dragon, because
he gave his authority to the beast; and they worshiped the beast,
saying, 'Who is like the beast, and who is able to wage war with
him?" And there was given to him a mouth speaking arrogant words
and blasphemies; and authority to act for forty-two months was given
to him. And he opened his mouth in blasphemies against God, to
blaspheme His name and His tabernacle, that is, those who dwell in
heaven. And it was given to him to make war with the saints and to
overcome them; and authority over every tribe and people and tongue
and nation was given to him. And all who dwell on the earth will
worship him, every one whose name has not been written from the
foundation of the world in the book of life of the Lamb who has been
slain.
82. Beliar here is almost universally recognized to be Nero. See J. P. M. Sweet,
Rsuelatian. Westminster Pelican Commentaries (Philadelphia: Westminster, 1979), p.
218. George Edmundson, 7%s Church in Ronu in th First CsnhLry (London: Longman's,
Green, 1913), p. 48.
83. Ascension of Isaiah 4 ltY
As demonstrated heretofore, the Beast is representative of impe-
The Role of Emperor Worship 277
rial Rome, the seven heads being the first seven emperors .84 We have
also argued that the 42 month "war against the saints" represented
the persecution of Christians by the beast Nero from A.D. 64 to 68.85
The- role of the wounded head" will be treated in a major section yet
to come.8G At this juncture we will set forth a brief demonstration of
the relationship of the emperor cult to the Neronian persecution (in
the next chapter we will deal more in depth with the nature and
extent of the Neronian persecution).
Clari@ng tb Is.w
We note here at the outset that a foml, legal relationship of
emperor worship to the Neronian persecution is not absolutely required
by the prophetic message contained in Revelation. Two considerations
lead us to this statement. In the first place, even upon
purely secular (i.e., naturalistic, anti-prophetic) presuppositions the
ideas embodied in Revelation 13 can be perceived as subtly lurking
behind the persecution of Nero. For the very existence of the emperor
cult and its employment by Nero himself surely would suggest to the
mind even of a mere non-inspired enthusiast both the religious
incompatibility of the Christian faith in regard to the divine pretensions
of the emperor, as well as the inexorable drift to deadly confrontation.
After all, at an earlier date (c. A.D. 40-41) had not Caligula
madly proposed the erection of his image in the Temple ofJerusalem
to the bitter distress and excited consternation of the Jews – and to
the very brink of war? Thus, whether or not the emperor Nero
formally and legally demanded "worship or die," the inevitable tendency
of the emperor cult, when coupled with the autocratic power
of the mad emperor Nero, must necessarily result in just such an
explosive confrontation. The Christian "man on the street" must
have feared just such a potential under Nero's nefarious reign.
In the second place, it could be that the prophecy of Revelation
13 speaks of the underlying philosophical and spirituul issues engaged,
rather than the external publicly advertised and judicially sanctioned
ones. That is, Revelation 13 could very well provide a graphic ~Piritual
elucidation of the fundamental potentialities lurking behind the cruel
84. See Chap. 10.
85. See Chaps. 14 and 17.
86. See Chap. 18.
278 BEFORE JERUSALEM FELL
imperial developments under Nero, rather than any spec~lc legal
datum relative to Christianity. Nevertheless, there is evidence pointing
to an actual confrontation that meets the expectations of the
passage even when literally interpreted.
Domitian and the Emperor Cult
What is more – and this is a crucial point – it should not be a
forgone conclusion that the emperor cult played a role even in the
later (alleged) Flavian persecution under Domitian. "Domitian's predilection
for being styled dominus et deus nester, 'our Lord and God',
stimulated a satirical response in many of his subjects, but would
have been regarded as plain blasphemy by Christians, for whom
there was 'one God, the Father, . . . and one Lord, Jesus Christ' (1
Cor. 8:6). But there is no record that this precipitated a clash between
him and the Christians .'ys'
Henderson views the material of Revelation differently, but in a
way fully capable of a Neronic interpretation:
The work is full of allusions to a persecution of the Christians as
Christians, and especially for refusing to "worship the Beast" (i.e., in
this connection the Emperor) = dissenters from Caesar-worship. . . .
The great crime is "Caesar-worship." This of course suits Domitian.
But ji-om other eoiderzce it suits Nero as well – when the Christians
suffered as Christians. . . . Caesar-worship, e.g. at Pergamum, is just
as prominent to a local writer under Nero as later.88
Historian Philip Schaff comments that "the unmistakable allusions
to imperial persecutions apply much better to Nero than to Domitian.
"89 Even late date advocate Ramsay admits that the statements
drawn from Revelation as evidence of the Domitianic persecution are
"entirely uncorroborated: not even indirect evidence supports
them. . . . We are reduced to mere general presumptions and estimates
of probabilities. . . . This is the one contemporary account
that has been preserved of the Flavian procedure."g" To which
87. F. F. Bruce, New Testament Htitoy (Garden City, NY: Anchor Books, 1969), p. 412.
88. Henderson, Nero, p. 440.
89. Philip Schaff, Histoy of the Christian Church, 8 VOIS. (Grand Rapids: Eerdrnans,
1910 1950) 1:428. More will be said on this matter of the extent and ~avity of the
persecution in Chap. 17.
90. William M. Ramsay, The Lettirs to Sewn Churcha (Grand Rapids: Baker, 1904
1963), p. 99.
Th Role of Emperor Worship 279
comment Robinson retorts: "If that is not contemporary, we have
nothing."91 (We will provide more on the persecution motif in Revelation
in the next chapter.)
Indeed, it is not until Trajan, the second emperor after Domitian,
that hard evidence supportive of a persecution based upon the legal
enforcement of the emperor cult upon Christians can be found.92
This is contained in the famous correspondence between Pliny the
Younger and the emperor Trajan regarding the proper handling of
Christianity in Bithynia, Asia Minor, in about A.D. 11393 – over a
decade later than and two emperors after Domitian. The significance
of this evidence is that by Traj an's day "it is treated as a stock test
of loyalty."94
The dogmatism necessary for supporting a late date for Revelation
on this matter is without foundation. Peake's reserve, as a
capable late date advocate, should be noted and applauded: He
understands Domitian's demand for emperor worship from Christians
as a cause of the persecution as merely "possible."95 Robinson
notes that "while the evidence from the imperial cultus does not rule
out a Domitianic dating, it does not establish it either."9G
Nero and the Emperor Cult
But apart from these matters, there is slight documentary evidence
that suggests that the Neronic persecution was related at least
in part to the imperial cult. Tacitus records the rationale for the
justification of the persecution.97 He notes that Nero turned to the
Christians in a desperate search for a scapegoat in order to turn
suspicions for the burning of Rome from himself He chose them
because Christians, as such, were "detested" by the populace. Sue-
91. Robinson, Redating, p. 237 n. 86.
92. Ibid., p. 236. Moyer notes that "these letters are the earliest account of Christians
to be given by pagan writers" (Elgin S. Moyer, W/w Wm Wio in Church Histo~ Chicago:
Moody, 1962, p. 335). This correspondence antedates the writings of Tacitus and
Suetonius.
93. Pliny, E@stks 10:96. Fuller reference to the significance of this correspondence
will be made in the next chapter of our inquiry.
94. Robinson, Redating, p. 236. See also Merrill C. Tenney, New Testanwd Tima
(Chicago: Moody, 1965), p. 331.
95. Peake, Revelation, p. 121.
96. Robinson, Redating, pp. 237-238.
97. Aads 15:44.
280 BEFORE JERUSALEM FELL
tonius records merely that "punishment was inflicted on the Christians,
a class of men given to a new and mischievous superstition. "w
Suetonius does not mention the fire; but, he does mention the hatred
heaped upon Christians qua Christians, as a distinct "class" (Latin:
"genus"). Of the charges against the Christians, Tacitus further observes
that "those who first confessed were hurried to the trial, and
then, on their showing, an immense number was involved in the
same fate, not so much on the charge of inandiaries m>om hatred of the human
race" (emphasis mine) .99 Nero's cruelty in this episode caused the
revulsion of even the gladiatorially de-sensitized Remans. They felt
of the torment of the Christians "that they were sacrificed not on the
altar of public interest, but to satisfjr the cruelty of one man. " 'N
We must carefully note that the punishment was exclusively
directed against Christians as such – as a genus. Clearly Christians
were punished as Christians, unlike the situation with Domitian.
Furthermore, the punishment was due to their "mischievous superstition"
and alleged "hatred (odium) of the human race. " 10 Henderson
suggests that the role of the emperor cult in the Neronian spectacle
is presemed in the emperor worship sections of Revelation: "The
great crime is 'Caesar-worship.' This of course suits Domitian. But
ji-om the other eviderue it suits Nero as well – when the Christians
suffered as Christians. The Christian writer i.e., John interprets the
'Odium' of Tacitus, etc.'' 102 As earlier in the history of the Roman
Republic with the Bacchanalian Conspiracy, 103 the government could
punish "superstitions" that implied a threat to the security and peace
of Rome. Culturally the peace of the Roman Empire (i.e., pax Romana)
was supposedly related to the blessing of the emperor. lW To
refuse his worship would be regarded as an insurrectionist contempt
98. Nero 16.
99. Tacitus, Annals 15:44.
100, Ibid.
101. See the capable analysis of contrary views (i.e., that other than Christians were
involved) in Henderson, Lz~e and Pnm"$ate, pp. 445ff.
102. Ibid., p. 442.
103. See Livy's account of this conspiracy in Livy, Hi.sto~ of Rome 39:8. See Josephus's
account in Antiquitz"es 14:10:8. Cp. Henderson, Nmo, p. 348; and W. H. C. Frend, 2% Rise
of C/virtiani~ (Philadelphia: Fortress, 1984), pp. 109, 276.
104. As Sweet has noted in this regard: "Gratitude to Augustus for bringing peace
after decades of civil war made his cult inevitable" (Reoetdion, p. 25). See Philo of
Alexandria, Embary to Gaiur (in Kee, Orig"ru of C/zri.rtiani~, p. 48), and the fragment ht.%
of ttu Pmmn.rul to the Cities of Asti (in ibid., p. 76).
11.e Role of Emperor Worship 281
for Roman rule that would threaten social and political upheaval in
the empire, an empire that had brought peace, stability, and prosperity
to all those living in the Mediterranean world. To refuse the
emperor cult would be tantamount to a "hatred of the human race."
One legal pillar that secured this peace was Augustus's Law of
Associations that prohibited any association that did not seek state
sanction. By refusing to acknowledge the divinity of the Genius of the
emperor, Christians were suspect. At this point some historical background
as to the political relationship of Israel to Rome will prove
helpful in countering a potential objection that might arise, i.e., "How
did Israel co-exist with Rome?" It is most interesting that since the
times of Julius Caesar Israel had benefited from certain special
privileges from Rome that were not allowed to other of its subjects. 105
For instance, Jerusalem's walls, which were destroyed by Pompey,
were allowed by Julius in his "league of mutual assistance" to be
rebuilt by Israel's Hyrcanus. lW Also contrary to Roman policy since
the Bacchanalian Conspiracy, the Jews were allowed to gather freely
for their special meetings. 10T Another example is that the Remans
generally were careful to not parade their standards in Jerusalem,
out of (largely pragmatic) respect for the Jewish sensitivity to "graven
images. !> 108 AS Bruce notes, "imperial policy respected the sanctity
of the city" of Jerusalem. '09 Another significant tolerance was in
regard to the standard Roman requirement over its conquered peoples
"that the votary of the new religion should extend an equal
tolerance to all those who did not share his views, and should add
the conception of Rome's Imperial Divinity to his Pantheon at least
nominally." 110 Contrary to common Roman practice in a polytheistic
world, Israel was allowed to maintain its strict monotheism. Indeed,
from Julius's times a number of other concessions were made to the
Jews that were favorable to Israel.lll
105. Interestingly, Julius Caesar so affected the admiration of the Jews that they
mourned his death according to Suetonius, Julius 845.
106. Josephus, Antiquities 14101,5.
107. Josephus, Antigzdies 14108.
108. See Josephus, Wan 2, for one occasion on which this sensitivity was scoffed at
with disastrous results by the Roman procurator Pontius Pilate. Another example of a
similar event is found in Philo, To Gaius.
109. Bruce, Hktmy, p. 35.
110. Henderson, Nero, p. 347.
111. Ibid., p. 13. See Josephus, Ati"guitses 14:10:2-8.
282 BEFORE JERUSALEM FELL
The Jews responded to the favors of Rome (as varying as these
were under different local procurators) by offering "sacrifices twice
every day for Caesar, and for the Roman people."  *2 This was
doubtless regarded by Rome as "a very fair equivalent" 113 to the
imposition of the Imperial Divinity's inclusion in the Pantheon of
Rome's subjects. In other words, it appeased the emperor's expectation
for some form of religious veneration by the Jews. 114
At the outbreak of the Jewish Revolt (which became a full-fledged
war from Rome's perspective when Nero commissioned Vespasian
to suppress it), however, this protective offering in honor of Caesar
was stopped. Josephus records the event:
And at this time it was that some of those that principally excited the
people to go to war, made an assault upon a certain fortress cakl
Masada. They took it by treachery, and slew the Remans that were
there, and put others of their own party to keep it. At the same time
Eleazar, the son of Ananias the high priest, a very bold youth, who
was at that time governor of the temple, persuaded those that officiated
in the divine service to receive no gift or sacrifice for any
foreigner. And this was the true beginning of our war with the
Remans: for they rejected the sacrifice of Caesar on this account: and
when many of the high priests and principal men besought them not
to omit the sacrifice, which it was customary for them to offer for their
princes, they would not be prevailed upon. 115
The effect of this decision as it reflected upon the Roman emperor
was that "its termination in the summer of A.D. 66 was tantamount
to official renunciation of his authority .''l*G This was the focal event
that highlighted the extreme seriousness of the revolt of the Jews and
that brought Roman imperial forces into the picture. In a real sense,
the cessation of the Jewish sacrifices for the emperor resulted in the
death of those in "the land," for a most gruesome and protracted war
was waged against rebellious Israel.  17
112. Josephus, Wars 2:10:4. See also his Against A,bion 2:5.
113. Henderson, Nero, p. 348.
114. One example exists of at least one emperor who felt it was not enough. The
emperor Gaius complained: "YOU offered sacrifices for me, it is true, but you offered
none to me," in Philo, To Gaius 357.
115. Wars 2:17:2.
116. Bruce, History, p. 139.
117. This seems to be the idea involved in the second Beast's killing those in the Land
who did not worship the image of the Beast (Rev. 13:15).
The Role of Emperor Worship 283
But another matter arises in consideration of these tiairs. The
very fact that the cessation of Israel's religious honor of the emperor
(through daily sacrifice) determined Rome's destructive response is
indicative of the very seriousness with which the emperor conceived
of emperor worship. In Rome's eyes, emperor worship may well have
been deemed a purely political and symbolic act, and not a truly
religious act.  18 But it was a deadly serious symbolic statement, one
of such magnitude as to eventuate in war. Even symbolic actions are
of serious historical consequence among most peoples; surely even
early emperor worship, even if merely symbolic, had serious political
implications that could result in the persecution and war of Revelation.
Returning to the motivation for Nero's persecution of the Christians
"there seem to have been two counts in the indictment. By
ancient rules each was tried separately. The first count probably, as
Conybeare and Howson suggest, was complicity in the fire. . . .
The second count was either majesta – almost anything could be
brought under this head – or the new crime of being a Christian, the
ccime of 'the Name', in itself a mere variation, as we shall see later,
of majestas or high treason. On this indictment there could be but one
verdict "119 As Henderson explains of this terrible episode: "In fact>
Christianity and the State were inevitably hostile, just because neither
could understand the position of the other. On the side of the
State, a very great and a very justifiable value was attached to the
conception of the Unity and the Unification of the whole Empire,
which was expressed, and could be expressed only, in the idea and
observance of Caesar-worship. This reverence paid to the Imperial
idea as symbolised by the worship of Rome and Augustus 'united',
as has been said, 'the peoples of the Empire from the Ocean to the
Syrian desert.'" '20 Thus, lurking behind the persecution, even if not
in the forefront, is the cult of the emperor — a harbinger of things to
come.
Additional questions could be explored with profit: Could it be
that the circus Nero sponsored to initiate the persecution of the
Christians in A.D. 64 was part of the veneration of the emperor, who
118. Except, of course, in the cases of the madcap emperors Caligula (Gaius) and
Domitian, and surely that of the insane Nero.
119. Workman, Persecutwn, p. 16.
120. Henderson, Lij2 and Pnncipate, p. 353.
284 BEFORE JERUSALEM FELL
rode as the sun god in his chariot? 121 Could there be a two-fold
meaning in the concept that the Christians were CCsa.mj$ced not on the
altar of public interest, but to satis~ the cruelty of one man"? Were
they in essence being "sacrificed" as on an "altar"?
These and other matters could be developed to fill out the
picture. It should be clear, however, that the emperor cult motif in
Revelation is no stumbling block to a ISeronic date for the book.
Conclusion
Despite the vigorous employment of the emperor cult motif in
Revelation as an evidence of its late date by some, the motif does not
demand a post-Neronian date at all. We have seen and late date
advocates even admit that the emperor cult was prevalent from the
times ofJulius Caesar. Its presence can be detected under each of the
forerunners to Nero. To make matters worse for the late date school,
the cult seems especially significant to Nero. Any objection to the
early date of Revelation that involves the emperor cult must be
discounted altogether. In point of historical fact, the emperor cult
motif in Revelation fits well the circumstances demanded by early
date advocacy.
121. Tacitus notes that 'Nero had offered his own gardens for the spectacle, and
exhibited a circus show, mingling with the crowd, himself dressed as a charioteer or
riding in a chariot" (AnmfJ 15:4-4).
17
THE PERSECUTION
OF CHRISTIANITY
Another argument prevalently employed by late date advocates
is that which, as Morris notes, discovers "indications that Revelation
was written in a time of persecution" — a persecution that accords
"much better with Domitian. " * Both Morris and Guthrie list this as
their second arguments for the A.D. 95-96 date; Kummel cites it first.
This line of reasoning is given considerable attention by many modern
late date scholars, including Morris, Guthrie, Kummel, Mounce,
Barnes, Hendrickson, and Beasley-Murray, for example.2 Kummel
is quite confident that "the temporal scene which Rev. sketches fits
no epoch of primitive Christianity so well as the time of the persecution
under Domitian. "3
It is indisputably clear from the perspective of Revelation's selfwitness
that imperial persecution against the faith has begun. We
will cite two clear samples of references to this persecution by way of
1. Leon Morris, me Revelation of St. John (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1969), p. 36.
See also James Moffatt, The Revelation of St. John ttw Divine, in W. R. Nicoll, cd.,
Englishman's Greek lktasmmt, vol. 5 (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, rep. 1980), pp. 317-320
(though his approach is much different, cp. p. 313). R. H. Charles, T/w Revelatwn of St.
John, 2 vols. International Critical Commentary (Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark, 1920)
1 :xciv-xm. Robert H. Mounce, Tiiz Book of Reudatwn. New International Commentary
on the New Testament, pp. 33-34. Donald Guthrie, New Testament Itiroduction, 3rd ed.
(Downers Grove, IL: Inter-Varsity Press, 1970), pp. 951-953. Werner Georg Kiimmel,
lntmdwtion tu the New Tedanwnt, 17th cd., trans. Howard C. Kee (Nashville: Abindgon,
1973), p. 467.
2. Morris, Revelation, p. 36; Guthrie, Introduction, p. 951; Mounce, Revelation, p. 33;
Kiimmel, Introduction, p. 467; Albert Barnes, Barws' Notes on New Tutument, 1 vol. ed.
(Grand Rapids: Kregel, rep. 1962) p. 1532; William Hendriksen, More Than C_or,
(Grand Rapids: Baker, 1967), p. 20; G. R. Beasley-Murray, "Revelation," in Francis
Davidson, cd., New Bible Comnwnta~ (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1954), p. 1168.
3. Kiimmel, Itirodudion, p. 468.
285
286 BEFORE JERUSALEM FELL
introduction (these have been dealt with above in other connections).
(1) Imbedded in the very opening statement ofJohn, Revelation 1:9
is most significant in this regard in that it sets forth an important
factor of the historical context of the writing of Revelation. In this
statement John clearly indicates Revelation was written while he was
banished "because of the word of God and the testimony of Jesus."
This cannot be the result of Jewish persecution, for the Jews could
not banish anyone, and certainly not to Patmos, an island used for
Roman imperial banishment. (2) In Revelation 13 John speaks of the
Beast waging war against the saints. This has been shown in other
connections to be a clear reference to Roman persecution. Other
references to persecution in Revelation may refer to Roman persecution,
but arguments can be presented to show that many of these are
of Jewish rather than Roman origin.4 Nevertheless, these two are
sufikient to demonstrate the existence of imperial persecution as an
historical backdrop in Revelation.
Let us then turn our attention to a consideration of the merits of
this late date argument from persecution.
Difficulties Confronting the
Domitianic Argument
The majority of commentators agree that Revelation definitely
breathes the atmosphere of violent persecution.5 But in regard to the
matter of the imperial persecution the question arises: Which persecution,
the Neronic or the Domitianic? It is most interesting at the
outset of our investigation and quite instructive for our inquiry to
note that several very capable late date advocates demur from employment
of the persecution evidences in arguing the Domitianic
4. For the Jewish character of the other persecutions see J. Stuart Russell, The
Parom"a: A Study of the New Tatument Doch"ru of Our Lord's Second Corning, 2nd ed. (Grand
Rapids: Baker, 1887 1983), pp. 365K; Frederic W. Farrar, The Ear~ Days ~ Christsarzz~
(New York: Cassell, 1884), pp. 437fE; Milton S. Terry, Biblical Hemrma tic$ (Grand
Rapids: Zondervan, rep. 1974), pp. 466ff.; P. S. Desprez, The A@ca@e FulJWed, 2nd ed.
(London: Longman, Brown, Green, Longmans, 1855), pami~ David Chilton, 2% Dgys
of Vmgearue: An Expofi"tion of the Book of Revelation (Fort Worth: Dominion Press, 1987),
passirn, Cornelis Vanderwaal, Search the Scri@ura, 10 VOIS., trans. Theodore Plantinga (St.
Catherine's, Ontario: Paideia Press, 1979), vol. 10.
5. One noted commentator who does not see Revelation's milieu as including
persecution is Barclay Newman in "The Fallacy of the Domitian Hypothesis. A Critique
of the Irenaeus Source as a Witness for the Contemporary-Historieal Approach to the
Interpretation of the Apocalypse, " New Tedasrwnt Studies 10 (1963-64):133-139.
% Persecution of Chtitiani~ 287
date. Notab!e among these are leading Revelation commentators H.
B. Swete, R. H. Charles, James Moffatt, and J. P. M. Sweet, who
do not employ the argument at all to prove the late date.G Another,
Arthur Peake, makes a dama@ng admission for those late date
advocates seeking to make use of this argument: "it is unquestionable
that the Book has in its present form a background of persecution.
Unhappily the whole subject of the relations between the Church and
the Empire is involved in great obscurity, so that it is somewhat
precarious to use hypotheses as to the history of these relations as a
test for the date of New Testament documents."7
Ladd, another late date advocate, even writes of this evidence
that "the problem with this theory is that there is no evidence that
during the last decade of the first century there occurred any open
and systematic persecution of the church."8 Reginald H. Fuller argues
for a Domitianic date of Revelation but advises that "there is
otherwise no evidence for the persecution of Christians in Asia Minor"
under Domitian.g Morris himself concurs with Fuller's assessment
as to the difiicuhy of discovering documentary evidence for an
empire-wide Dornitianic persecution. 10 He falls back on his view of
the ~ossibilitie~ "But as far as establishing the date of the book goes,
all that we can say from the evidence of persecution is that it accords
with all that we know of Domitian that there should have been such
persecution, and that there is no other period in the first century
which fits nearly as well. " 11 David H. van Daalen, still another late
date advocate, concurs in admitting that we "have no evidence that
there was any persecution under Domitian." 12 Newman agrees.'3
6. J. P. M. Sweet even discourages reference to it; Sweet, Revelation. Westminster
Pelican Commentaries (Philadelphia Westminster, 1979), pp. 24-25.
7. Arthur S. Peake, 7% Revelation ofJohn (London: Joseph Johnson, 1919), p. 93.
8. George Eldon Ladd, A Commentay on the Reuekztion of John (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans,
1972), p. 8. He also denies that there was any "worldwide persecution of the
church" in the first century that could be reflected in Revelation (p. 9). It should be
noted, however, that Ladd's futurist approach to Revelation may form a hidden agenda
in his making such declarations.
9. Reginald H. Fuller, A Critical Introdudwn to th New Testanumt (Letchworth Duckworth,
1971), p. 187.
10. Morris, Reoelatwn, p. 36.
11. Ibid., p. 37.
12. David H. van Daalen, A Guia?s ti tht Revelation, TEF Study Guide 20 (London:
SPCK, 1986), p. 3.
13. Newman, "Fallacy," $a.mk.
288 BEFORE JERUSALEM FELL
Often New Testament scholars have found themselves at odds
with Roman historians on the matter of the empire-wide Domitianic
persecution of Christianity. 14 Many scholars understand Domitian's
violent outburst as concentrating on "selected individuals whom he
suspected of undermining his authority." 15 The problem with the
evidence for this persecution is that it proceeds almost solely from
Christian sources – sources somewhat later than the events. For
instance, the earliest specific evidence for a general (that is, empire
wide) persecution of Christianity under Domitian is Melito of Sardis
who flourished in the middle of the second century. 16 Modern Roman
historians often surmise that the ancient Roman hatred of Domitian
(they deemed him a second Nero) 17 affected Christian belief later.
Even some competent evangelical New Testament scholars have
begun to question the evidence for a Dornitianic persecution against
Christianity. Moule and Ladd write of "the alleged persecution"
under Domitian. 18 After reviewing the ancient evidence, Hort notes
of the data regarding Domitian's outrageous conduct that "there is
nothing in the accounts which suggests anything like a general persecution
of Christians, even at Rome: it would rather seem that Christians
of wealth or station were mainly, if not wholly, struck at." 19
Bruce admits of Domitian's reputation as a persecutor that the
14. E. G. Hardy states that evidence for the Domitianic persecution rests only on
"probable and indirect evidence" (Chr-Mar@ and th Roman Gorwmrwmt London: Allen
and Unwin, 1925, p. 76).
15. Glenn W. Barker, William L. Lane, and J. Ramsey Michaels, Z?u Na Tatarnent
Speaks (New York: Harper & Row, 1969), p. 368. Edmundson writes that Domitian's
was "not a general persecution at all, but a series of isolated acts directed chiefly against
a few influential persons, including members of his own family" (George Edmundson,
The Church in Rome in the First Centwy London: Longman's, Green, 1913, p. 168). R. L.
Milburrr suggests that Domitian was "suspicious of people rather than of their beliefs"
(Milburn, "The Persecution of Domitian" Church QwzrLw@ i2miew 139 1944-45 :155).
16. Melito protested to the emperor Marcus Aurelius that "of all the emperors it was
Nero and Domitian alone who, at the instigation of certain persons" assailed the
Christian Church See Lactantius, l%e Death of th Pem-eutors 3. The statement in 1
Clement 1:1 regarding "the sudden and repeated misfortunes and calamities which have
befallen us" may have been written in the late 60s, but if in the 90s "in the absence of
more explicit information we cannot be sure that he refers to an outbreak of persecutions"
(F. F. Bruce, New 7Marrwzt Hi.rtory Garden City, NY Anchor Books, 1969, p. 412).
17. Juvenal Satires 437tT
18. C. F. D. Moule, Birth of the Ntw Testurnent, 3rd ed. (New York Harper & Row,
1982), p. 153; Ladd, Revelation, p. 9.
19. F. J. A. Hort, The Apoca@pse of St. John: Z-HI (London: Macmillan, 1908), p. xxiv.
Th Persecution of Christianip 289
"evidence to justi~ this reputation is scanty."z" Despite his employment
of the Domitianic persecution as one of the major proofs of the
late date, Morris himself admits that the evidence for a general
persecution under Domitian "is not easy to find" !21
The only non-Chnstian evidence for a Domitianic persecution of
Christianity is based on an ambiguous statement from Dio Cassius'
Roman Histoy, a history produced quite sometime after the events.22
Dio states that Domitian's cousin Flavius Clemens was executed and
his wife banished on the basis of the charge of "atheism," a charge
that Dio equates with the practice ofJudaism. Besides the ambiguity
of the statement itself (is this "atheism" really Christianity, as some
argue?), two-thirds of Die's writing is preserved for us in an eleventh
century epitome and a twelfth century summary. Cary argues, and
Bell agrees, that the section dealing with Domitian was produced
"very carelessly. W3 BellYS article in N~ Testament Studies provides an
excellent analysis both of the difficulty of establishing a general
persecution under Domitian and of the questionable utility of the
evidence from Dio Cassius.
Furthermore, it is remarkable that though Suetonius credited
Nero with the persecution of Christians, he makes no mention of
Domitian's alleged persecution. 21 It would seem that since he viewed
the punishment of Christians as praiseworthy under Nero, that any
general persecution of them under Domitian would have deserved
comment.
Thus, the documentary evidence for a general imperial persecution
of Christianity under Domitian is deemed questionable by a
number of competent scholars. This fact alone should render this
second leading proof of a late date for Revelation suspect. Even a
good number of knowledgeable late date advocates doubt the usefulness
of such an argument. Not only is the evidence suspect, but even
if accepted, it reveals a persecution inferior in every respect to the
Neronic persecution, as will be shown.
20. Bruce, Histoty,p.412.
21. Morns, Revelation, pp. 36-37.
22. His dates are A.D. 150-235.
23. Dio Cassius, Roman Histo~, trans. Ernest Cary, 9 VOIS. Loeb Classical Library -
(Cambridge Harvard University Press, 1968) 1 :xxiii.
24. Nero 16:2.
290 BEFORE JERUSALEM FELL
The Suitability of the Evidence
for the Neronic Argument
As has been shown, the very historicity of a Domitianic persecution
of Christianity has been brought into question. Such cannot be
the case with the persecution under Nero. Although many scholars
argue that the Neronic persecution was confined to Rome and its
environs, the indisputable fact remains: Nero cruelly persecuted Christianity,
taking even the lives of its foremost leaders, Peter and Paul.
The evidence for the Neronic persecution is overwhelming and is
documentable from heathen, as well as Christian, sources. Let us
survey a portion of the evidence from the original sources and then
return to consider the si~ificance of the data.
Th Doczmwntary Evidence for a Nemnic Persecutwn
The earliest evidence for Nero's persecuting wrath upon the
Christians is found in Clement's epistle to the Corinthians (designated
1 Clement). Previously we saw that there is good reason to
believe that 1 Clement was written in the late 60s. Even if the later
date for the composition of Clement be accepted, however, the evidence
still is early, being about A.D. 95-97. What is more, the
evidence is fi-om one who lived in Rome and who knew many of those
who were slain by Nero.
In 1 Clement 5 reference is made to the persecution of the
apostles, then in section 6 Clement tells us that "unto these men were
gathered a vast m.ultituak of the elect, who through many indignities
and tortures, being the victims of jealousy, set a brave example
among ourselves. " 1 Clement 7 is given as an exhortation to those
who remained of the Roman congregation, that they, too, should
"conform to the glorious and venerable rule which bath been handed
down to us."
Tertullian – who was a Iawyer25 and who wrote in Latin, the
legal language of the Roman Empire – challenges men to search the
archives of Rome for the proof that Nero persecuted the Church. In
his Scorpion's Sting he writes: "And if a heretic wishes his confidence
to rest upon a public record, the archives of the empire will speak,
25. Eusebius calls him "a man accurately acquainted with the Roman laws." He also
speaks of him as "particularly distinguished among the eminent men of Rome" (Ecc&ustid
Ht.rlov 2:2:4)
Th Persecution of Chri.rtianip 291
as would the stones of Jerusalem. We read the lives of the Caesars:
At Rome Nero was the first who stained with blood the rising
faith."2c Surely he would not issue a challenge to search the archives
of Rome, that could easily be taken and just as easily refuted, were
his statement untrue.
Eusebius, who had access to documents no longer available to
us, concurs with Tertullian: "When the rule of Nero was now gathering
strength for the unholy objects he began to take up arms against
the worship of the God of the universe. " He goes on to note very
clearly of Nero that "he was the first of the emperors to be pointed
out as a foe of divine religion."27
Sulpicius Severus writes of Nero:
He first attempted to abolish the name of Christian, in accordance
with the fact that vices are inimical to virtues, and that all good men
are ever regarded by the wicked as casting reproach upon them. For,
at that time, our divine religion had obtained a wide prevalence in the
city. . . .
. . . .
In the meantime, the number of the Christians being very large, it
happened that Rome was destroyed by fire, while Nero was stationed
at Antium. . . . He therefore turned the accusation against the Christians,
and the most cruel tortures were accordingly aflicted upon the
innocent. . . . In this way, cruelty first began to be manifested
against the Christians.28
Orosius speaks of this persecution in his works, when he writes of
Nero that "he was the first at Rome to torture and inflict the penalty
of death upon Christians, and he ordered them throughout all the
provinces to be afllicted with like persecution; and in his attempt to
wipe out the very name, he killed the most blessed apostles of Christ,
Peter and Paul."29 Supplementary to these references are those given
in Chapter 12 above that show Nero to be the Beast, some from
Church fathers, some from the Christian Sibylline Oracles.
26. Scorpion's Sting 15. It is interesting that in this regard he only mentions Nero's
persecution as atllicting the Apostles.
27. Eusebius, Eccletiastica! Histo~ 2:25.
28. Sulpicius Severus, Smed Histosy 2:28,29.
29. Orosius, The Seoen Books of Histoiy Against the Pagans 7:7. See Roy Joseph Deferrari,
cd., T/u Fathm of tb Church, vol. 50 (Washington: Catholic University of America Press,
1964), pp. 298-299.
292 BEFORE JERUSALEM FELL
To the advantage of proving the Neronic persecution, the Christian
testimony is well-supplemented by heathen historians. Roman
historian Tacitus, who was born during the early days of the reign
of Nero and who wrote under the reign of Trajan, gives a most
detailed and terrifying account of the beginning of the persecution:
But by no human contrivance, whether lavish distributions of money
or of offerings to appease the gods, could Nero rid himself of the ugly
rumor that the fire was due to his orders. So to dispel the report, he
substituted as the guilty persons and inflicted unheard-of punishments
on those who, detested for their abominable crimes, were vulgarly
called Christians. . . .
So those who first confessed were hurried to the trial, and then, on
their showing, an immense number were involved in the same fate,
not so much on the charge of incendiaries as from hatred of the human
race. And their death was aggravated with mockeries, insomuch that,
wrapped in the hides of wild beasts, they were torn to pieces by dogs,
or fastened to crosses to be set on fire, that when the darkness fell they
might be burned to illuminate the night. Nero had offered his own
gardens for the spectacle, and exhibited a circus show, mingling with
the crowd, himself dressed as a charioteer or riding in a chariot.
Whence it came about that, though the victims were guilty and
deserved the most exemplary punishment, a sense of pity was aroused
by the feeling that they were sacfilced not on the altar of public
interest, but to satisfi the cruelty of one man.w
Suetonius credits as one of Nero's positive contributions as empero#
l that he persecuted Christians: "During his reign many abuses
were severely punished and put down, and no fewer new laws were
made: a limit was set to expenditures. . . . Punishment was inflicted
on the Christians, a class of men given to a new and mischievous
superstition. "32 The evidence is from such sources and of such a
nature that the existence of a Neronic persecution of Christianity
cannot be denied.
30. Tacitus, Annals 15:44.
31. He states later "I have brought together these acts of his, some of which are
beyond criticism, while others are even deserving of no slight praise, to separate them
fmm his shameful and criminal deeds, of which I shall proceed now to give an account"
(Nero 19:3).
32. Suetonius, N~TO 162.
The Persecution of Chri.stianip 293
Th Signtjicance of th Evideme for a Neronic Persecution
As the evidence for the Neronic persecution is scrutinized, we
must bear in mind that it clearly demonstrates, first, that Christians
were punished, and that they were punished as Christians. Both Tacitus
and Suetonius make reference to the fact that those punished
were members of that hated religious sect. Suetonius mentions to
Nero's credit that the "Christians" were punished as members of a
"new and mischievous supers tition. " Tacitus speaks of them as "Christians"
and as "detested" by the populace and as "guilty" of criminal
activity. 33 Clearly the hated religious commitment of the Christians
marked them out as worthy of punishment in the minds of the
heathen populace.34
These Christians were not punished as Jews, as may have been
done by imperial confusion under Claudius when Jews were banished
from Rome because of "Chrestus" (Christ) .35 It is clear that although
Rome had previously confused Christianity as a sect ofJudaism and
33. The "crimes" of the Christians have nothing to do with the fire – Tacitus admits
that Nero looked for scapegoats. The "crimes" of the Christians had to do with their
aloofness from the "culture" of Rome. "The principles in which they gloried . . . forbade
them to recognise the national gods or the religion of the Roman people, or to take part
in any of the public religious ceremonies or spectacles, or in that worship of the gentw of
Caesar . . ." (Edmundson, Church in Rorw, p. 137). Tacitus's reference to the Christians
indicates they were thought to have a hatred for the human race: oa'so humani generis
(Annals 15:44); see B. W. Henderson, Th Lzj2 and Priacipate ofthz Emperor Nero (London:
Methuen, 1903), pp. 436-437. Ramsay wrote of this comment: "To the Remans genus
hurnanum meant. not mankind in general. but the Roman world – men who lived L..
according to Roman manners and laws; the rest of the human race were enemies and
barbarians. The Christians then were enemies to civilised man and to the customs and
laws which regulated civilised society. They were bent on relaxing the bonds that held
society together . . ." (William M. Ramsay, 7% Church in the Roman Empire B~ore A.D.
170 Grand Rapids: Baker, (1897) 1979, p. 236).
34. Some have argued that the name "Christian" was uncommon in Nero's day and
was only used proleptically by the second century historians Tacitus and Suetonius. But
these were men who freely derived their historical research from contemporary sources.
Furthermore, Peter speaks of the Neronian persecution when he writes: "If a man suffer
as a Christian let him not be ashamed, but let him glorifi God in this Name" ( 1 Pet.
416). The name "Christian" was popularly employed in Antioch well before the 60s
(Acts 11:26) and was even familiar to King A~ippa (Acts 2628). Pliny's correspondence
to Trajan also suggests that the name "Christian" was long known among imperial
authorities by A.D. 112.
35. Suetonius, Claudius 25:4: "Since the Jews constantly made disturbances at the
instigation of Chrestus, he expelled them from Rome." That Christians were affected by
this banishment is evident fmm Acts 18:2. Obviously, the fact that many Christians were
Jewish confused the Remans into considering Christianity a Jewish sect.
294 BEFORE JERUSALEM FELL
had thus tolerated it asareligio ltitaunder theumbrella of Judaism,
such was no longer to be the case. Many scholars note that Christianity
was first recognized as a separate religion and was increasingly
regarded as a wligio illicita in the period beginning with Nero's
opening persecution and ending in the destruction of the temple in
Jerusalem. 36 Workman confidently asserts that
we can date with some certainty this distinction in the oilicial mind
between Jew and Christian as first becoming clear in the summer of
64. The acquittal of St. Paul in 61 or 62 – an event we may fiirly
assume as probable — is proof that in that year Christianity, a distinct
name for which was only slowly coming into use, could still claim
that it was a religio licita . . . still recognized as a branch of Judaism.
. . . At any rate, both Nero and Rome now clearly distinguished
between the reli~"o licita of Judaism and the new sect. . . . The
destruction of Jerusalem would remove the last elements of confusion.
37
The distinction having become evident, the situation which arose
was that "once Christianity presented itself in the eyes of the law and
the authorities as a religion distinct from that ofJudaism, its character
as a religio illicita was assured. No express decree was needed to
make this plain. In fact, the 'non licet' was rather the presupposition
underlying all the imperial rescripts against Christianity. "38
It is indisputably the case that Christianity was persecuted by
Nero Caesar. The evidence for a Domitianic persecution is immeasurably
weaker, and thus the argument for a Domitianic setting for
Revelation is also weaker.
Second, we learn from both pagan and Christian sources that
not only were Christians punished, but they were punished in huge
numbers. Not only so, but the Neronic persecution was more gruesome
and longer lasting in comparison to the alleged Domitianic
persecution. Tacitus speaks of an "immense number" (multitudo in-
36. Ramsay, Church in Roman Em,bire, pp. 251; Philip Schaff, Hirtoty of the Christian
Church, 8 vols. (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1910 1950) 1:377-381; Herbert B. Workman,
Penecution in he Ear~ Church (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1906 1980), p. 22;
Sweet, Revelation, p. 28; Peake, Revelutwn, p. 94.
37. Workman, Pwsecution, p. 22.
38. Adolf Harnack, The Mi.rsion and Exp&"on of Christianity in the First Three Centuries,
2 VOIS. (New York: G. p. Putnam's, 1908) 2:116.
Th Persecution of Christianip 295
gem) of Christians who were hurried to trial under Nero.39 The
reliability of Tacitus on this matter has been rigorously defended by
Ramsay, who was a late date advocate in regard to Revelation.a Of
Tacitus's further observation that the spectacle ultimately sickened
the populace, Ramsay notes that "it can have been no inconsiderable
number and no short period which brought satiety to a populace
accustomed to find their greatest amusement in public butcheries,
frequently recurring on a colossal scale."41 Henderson is convinced
that Tacitus's statement "is a plain statement. I see no reason for
holding it an anachronism or denying it."42 To Tacitus's testimony
can be added the Christian testimony of Clement of Rome. As one
intimately concerned (and most probably even personally involved),
Clement noted that a "vast multitude of the elect" suffered "many
indignities and tortures. "43
When this material regarding the Neronic persecution is contrasted
to that of the Domitianic persecution, the picture becomes
even more convincing. Scholars of historical learning see remarkable
differences between the two. Henderson refers to the Domitianic
persecution (which he accepts as involving Christians) as a "squall
of persecution. "~ He goes on to state that "there is at least even
among the credulous no disputing the fact that such a persecution, if
it did occur, was both very shortlived and of no lasting consequence."
45
Earlier in the ,present work we noted that the Neronic persecution
lasted over three years, until the death of Nero.% In comparing the
two persecutions, Lightfoot speaks of "the earlier and more severe
assault on the Christians in the latter years of the reign of Nero."47
39. Annals 15:44.
40. Ramsay, Church in Roman Empire, pp. 228-229.
41. Ibid., p. 241.
42 Henderson, Nero, p. 436.
43. 1 Clement 6. Clement's phrase rro~d ml~f%q is identical in import with Tacitus's
ingens multitudo (Annals 15:44) as well as with John's 6~Aog rroafig in Revelation 7:9 and
19:1, 6.
44. B. W. Henderson, Five Roman Emperors (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,
1927), p. 45.
45. Ibid.
46. See Chapter 14.
47. Joseph B. Llghtfoot and J. R. Harmer, The Apostolic Fathrs (Grand Rapids: Baker,
1891 1984), p. 3.
296 BEFORE JERUSALEM FELL
Hort concurs: "The whole language about Rome and the empire,
Babylon and the Beast, fit the last days of Nero and the time
immediately following, and does not fit the short local reign of terror
under Domitian. Nero affected the imagination of the world as Domitian,
as far as we know, never did."48 The gruesome cruelty of Nero's
persecution has already been noted from Tacitus: Christians were
"wrapped in the hides of wild beasts, they were torn to pieces by
dogs" and were "fastened to crosses to be set on fire."49
Thus, the sheer magnitude and the extreme cruelty of Nero's
persecution of Christianity are most suggestive of its suitability for
fulfillment of the role required in Revelation. Athough the debate is
involved and inconclusive "there is some reason to believe that there
was actual legislation against Christians in Rome under Nero. "W
Demonstration of this fact, however, is not necessary to establishing
our argument.
48. Hort, Apoca~pse, p. xxvi.
49. Tacitus, ArrnalJ 15:44.
50. C. F. D. Moule, The Birth of the New Tn.krnwnt, 3rd ed. (New York: Harper &
Row, 1982), p. 154. Though there has been intense debate as to the question of Nero's
persecution's basis in legislative action, there is good evidence to suggest it was so: (1)
Tertullian speaks of the "Neronian institution," Apol. 5:3; Sulpicius Severus indicates the
same, Chron. 11:29:3. (2) Suetonius strongly implies such, Nero 16. (2) 1 Pet. 415 is more
easily understock in such a situation. See especially Jules Lebreton and Jacques Zeiller,
Histoy of the l%mtioe Church, trans. Ernest C. Messenger, vol. 1 (New York: Macmillan,
1949), pp. 374-381. See also Moule, Birth of New Testarwnt, pp. 154tl; and John A. T.
Robinson, Redating tb New Testament (Philadelphia: Westminster Press, 1976), pp. 234ff.
Many of the passages that the persecution is declared to exist in probably refer to
either the Jewish persecution of Christianity or to the Roman overthrow of Jerusalem,
according to a number of early date advocates, including the present writer.
Others who argued that the legal proscription of Christianity was as early as under
Nero's latter reign include:
S. Angus, "Roman Empire," Integration Standard Bible Em#opedia ISBE (Grand
Rapids: Eerdmans, 1915) 4:2607. Angus cites Mommsen and Sanday as adherents.
E. G. Hardy, Christiati~ and Rormm Governmmt (New York Burt Franklin, 1971
1894), p. 77.
J. L. Ratton, The Apoca~pse ~St. John (London: R. & T. Washbourne, 1912), p. 14.
J. Stevenson, cd., A New Eusebius: Documents Illustrative of the Histo~ qfthe Church to AD.
337 (New York: Macmillan, 1957), p. 3.
Edmundson, Church in Ronw, pp. 125K.
Peake, Revelation, p. 111.
Workman, Persecution, pp. 20tI
Henderson held this view and cited the following authors: B. Aub6, Gaston Boissier,
Theodor Keim, J. B. Bury, Charles Menvale, F. W. Farrar, Henry Fumeaux, A. H.
Raabe, Ernest Renan, and Pie,p-e Batiffol; Hendemon, N2m, p. 435.
The Persecution of Christianip 297
Third, although the matter is still subject to debate, there is
reason to believe that the Neronic persecution extended beyond
Rome and into the provinces. At least there is more suggestive
evidence for this being the case under Nero than under Domitian.
Since Christianity had become a religio illicita and the emperor himself
had taken severe measures to suppress it, almost certainly we can
expect that at least by imitation provincial magistrates would engage
themselves in the matter. As late date advocate William Ramsay
suggests: "we conclude that if Tacitus has correctly represented his
authorities, the persecution of Nero, begun for the sake of diverting
popular attention, was continued as a permanent police measure
under the form of a general prosecution of Christians as a sect
dangerous to the public stiety. . . . When Nero had once established
the principle in Rome, his action served as a precedent in every
province. There is no need to suppose a general edict or formal law.
The precedent would be quoted in every case where a Christian was
accused."51 Surely it would be the case that "the example set by the
emperor in the capital could hardly be without influence in the
provinces, and would justi$ the outbreak of popular hatred."52 Other
competent scholars concur.53
Evidently Pliny's famous correspondence with Trajan (c. A.D.
113) implies a long-standing imperial proscription of Christianity, a
proscription surely earlier and certainly more severe than Domitian's.
54 Although it once was held by many that Pliny's correspondence
was evidence that the policy of proscribing Christianity was a
new policy of Trajan, this view is "now almost universally abandoned."
55 In Pliny's inquiry to Trajan as to how to treat the Christians
brought before him, he is concerned with a standing legal
proscription.
51. Ramsay, Church in Roman Empire, pp. 241, 245.
52. Schafi Hzstory 1:384.
53. F. J. A. Hort, Th First Epistle of St Petir (London: Macmillan, 1898), p. 2;
Henderson, Church in Rome, p. 137; Angus, "Roman Empire," ISBE 42607; John Laurence
von Mosheim, History of Chrirtiani& in ttk First Thee Centuries (New York. Converse,
1854) 1: 141K; Moses Stuart, CommentaU on the Apoca@pse, 2 VOIS. (Andover: Allen,
Merrill, and Wardwell, 1845) 1 :222ff. Schatf cites Ewald, Renan, C. L. Roth, and
Weiseler as assuming "that Nero condemned and prohibited Christianity as dangerous
to the state" (Histo~ 1:384, n. 1).
54. Hort, 1 Peter, p. 2.
55. S. Angus, "Roman Empire" in ISBE 42607.
298 BEFORE JERUSALEM FELL
Pliny knew that for some time past the Christians had been legaIly
regarded as the enemies of the state and that confession of the name
meant outlawry. . . . The Rescript of Trajan merely confirmed in
writing the practice, which had subsisted since the time of Nero, of
treating the very name of Christian as a crime against the State.5G
Angus comments on the view held by "Hardy (Christianity and th
Roman Government, 77), Mommsen (Expos, 1893, 1-7) and Sanday (ib,
1894, 406K) – and adopted by the writer of this article – that the
trial of the Christians under Nero resulted in the declaration of the
mere profession of Christianity as a crime punishable by death. . . .
The Neronian persecution settled the future attitude of the Roman
state toward the new faith. "57
Ancient evidence suggestive of the provincial persecution of Christianity
is not of the earliest date, but is significant because of its
reported reliance on Tacitus and perhaps even on Tacitus's lost
works. Orosius states that after Nero tortured Christians, he "ordered
this throughout all the provinces, with the same excruciating persecution."
58 In the seventh book of Orosius's history, in which he provides
an account of both the fire and the persecution, "Orosius shows
himself to be thoroughly acquainted with the writings of Suetonius,
Tacitus, and Josephus, all of which he quotes by name."59 Sulpicius
Severus writes regarding Nero's persecution that "in this way, cruelty
first began to be manifested against the Christians. Afterwards, too,
their religion was prohibited by laws that were enacted; and by edicts
openly set forth it was proclaimed unlawfiul to be a Christian. At that
time Paul and Peter were condemned to death, the former being
beheaded with a sword, while Peter suffered crucifixion."w
Conclusion
The evidence of a general persecution against Christianity under
Nero is strong and almost universally recognized. Its cruelty, extent,
and length are most compatible with the requirements of the Revelational
record. Not only so, but the Domitkmic evidence is meager
56. Edmundson, Church in Ronw, p. 139, n. 1.
57. Angus, "Roman Empire," ISBE 4:2607.
58. Oroshs, 7iie Seven Books of His~ Against the Pagans 7:7.
59. Edmundson, Church in Rorm, p. 143.
60. Severus, Samed Histmy 2:29.
The Perstzution of Christiani~ 299
and, if accepted, Domitian's persecution pales in comparison. Interestingly,
while admitting that "the evidence for widespread persecution
under Domitian is not especially strong," Mounce goes on rather
boldly to add that yet "there is no other period in the first century in
which it would be more likely" !Gl
Furthermore, the very chronological occurrence of the Neronic
persecution is more suitable to Revelation's treatment. "To all appearance,
at Rome, the Christian Church was drowning in its own
blood in Nero's reign. We must consider the feeling of the ordinary
Christian – the man in the street, so to speak – and look at it from
his point of view. In later persecutions men had got to know that the
Church could survive the furious edicts of Rome. But that was just
the doubt which presented itself to the mind of the average Christian
man in Nero's time. "G2 No imperial persecution other than the very
first would be more important to establishing the durability of the
faith. No imperial persecution more than this one required a word
of exhortation and consolation to the beleaguered faith.
61. Mounce, Revelatwn, p. 34.
62. Ratton, Apoca~pse, p. 87.
18
THE NERO REDIVZVUS MYTH
Morris's third evidence for a Domitianic date for Revelation is
the ancient Nero Redivivu.s myth, which he briefly explains and confidently
employs: "Again, it is urged that the book shows evidence of
knowledge of the Nero redivivus myth (e.g. xvii. 8, 11). After Nero's
death it was thought in some circles that he would return. At first
this appears to have been a refusal to believe that he was actually
dead. Later it took the form of a belief that he would come to life
again. This took time to develop and Domitian's reign is about as
early as we can expect it. " 1 Swete lists the myth as the first of the
"more definite" evidences for a late date: "There are other indications
of date which are more definite, and point in the same direction. (a)
It is impossible to doubt that the legend of Nero Redivivus is in full view
of the Apocalyptist in more than one passage (xiii. 3, 12, 14, xvii.
8).~>2
Form critic Moffatt boldly asserts that "the phase of the Neroredivivus
myth which is represented in the Apocalypse cannot be
earlier than at least the latter part of Vespasian's reign."3 In his
commentary on Revelation 17 he speaks strongly of the role of the
myth in interpreting the passage, when he notes that "the latter trait
is unmistakably due to the legend of Nero redivivus, apart from
which the oracle is unintelligible."4 Charles, a fellow form critic, is
equally confident of the utility of the NeTo Redivivus myth in establishing
Revelation's date: " Tb Nero-rediuivus myth appears implkit~ and
1. Leon Morris, The Revelatwn of St. John (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1969), p. 37.
2. Henry Barclay Swete, CornmmtaV on Rsvelaticm (Grand Rapids: Kregel, 1906
1977), pp. ci-cii.
3. James Moffatt, The Revelation of St. John ttu Diviw, in W. R. Nicoll, cd., Englishman's
Greek Te.rtamd, vol. 5 (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, rep. 1980), p. 317.
4. Ibid., p. 450.
300
The Nero Redivivus Myth 301
explicitly in several forms in our text, the latest of which cannot be earlier than
the age of Domitian."5 He sees the myth- as growing in stages of
development and its reaching the developmental stage employed in
Revelation only by Domitian's time. G Mounce lists as the first of his
lesser arguments7 "for the Domitianic date of Revelation "the particular
form of the Nero myth which underlies chapters 13 and 17." He
follows the typical pattern of late date thinking when he notes that
the myth "could not have developed and been generally accepted
until near the end of the century."8 Kummel mentions the myth as
requiring a late date, but he only mentions this in passing.g A good
number of other scholars employ the myth as helpful in dating
Revelation in Domitian's reign. 10
These few scholars – representatives of liberal and of conservative
scholarship – demonstrate the role of the Nero Redivivu myth in
dating Revelation from the late date perspective. Before actually
considering the merits of their case, a brief introduction to the myth
itself will be necessary.
The Myth Explained
The specific passages of Revelation that are deemed expressive
of the currency of the Nero Redivivus myth are Revelation 13:3, 14 and
17:8, 11:
And I saw one of his heads as if it had been slain, and his fatal wound
5. R. H. Charles, T/u Reuelatton of St. John, 2 vols. International Critical Commentary
(Edinburgh: T. &T. Clark, 1920) 1 :XCV. Emphasis in the original.
6. Ibid., p. xcvi.
7. His major arguments are two: (1) the role of emperor worship and (2) the widespread
prevalence of persecution. Robert H. Mounce, T/w Book of Revelation. New International
Commentary on the New Testament (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1977), pp. 32-34.
8. Ibid., p. 34.
9. Werner Georg Kiimmel, Introduction to the New Testament, 17th cd., trans. Howard
C. Kee (Nashville: Abingdon, 1973), p. 468.
10. For example:
Arthur S. Peake, ?% Revelation ofJohn (London: Joseph Johnson, 1919), pp. 123-133.
Isbon T. Beckwith, 2% Ajsoca~pse of John: Studies in Introduction (Grand Rapids: Baker,
1917 1967), pp. 400-403.
John Paul Pritchard, A Litera~ Approach to tb New Testament (Norman, OK: University
of Oklahoma Press, 1972), p. 303.
Howard Clark Kee, Understanding & Nsw T.stammt, 4th ed. (Englewood Cliffs, NJ:
Prentice-Hall, 1983), p. 339.
Ernest Findlay Scott, 2% Literature of thz New 2%tanwzt. Records of Civilization XV
(New York: Columbia University Press, 1932), p. 277.
302 BEFORE JERUSALEM FELL
was healed. And the whole earth was amazed and followed after the
beast (13:3).
And he deceives those who dwell on the earth because of the sips
which it was given him to petiorm in the presence of the beast, telling
those who dwell on the earth to make an image to the beast who had
the wound of the sword and has come to life (13:14).
The beast that you saw was and is not, and is about to come up out
of the abyss and to go to destruction. And those who dwell on the
earth will wonder, whose name has not been written in the book of
life from the foundation of the world, when they see the beast, that
he was and is not and will come (17:8).
And the beast which was and is not, is himself also an eighth, and is
one of the seven, and he goes to destruction (17:11).
In his commentary at Revelation 13:3 conservative commentator
Swete spoke of the myth more fully:
If it be asked whether any of the earlier Roman Emperors received a
death-blow from which he recovered or was supposed to have recovered,
the answer is not far to seek. In June 68 Nero, pursued by the
emissaries of the Senate, inflicted upon himself a wound of which he
died. His remains received a pubjic funeral, and were afterwards
lodged in the mausoleum of Augustus. Nevertheless there grew up in
the eastern provinces of the Empire a rumour that he was still alive,
and in hiding. Pretenders who claimed to be Nero arose in 69 and 79,
and even as late at 88 or 89. . . . The legend of Nero's survival or
resuscitation took root in the popular imagination, and Dion Chrysostom
. . . at the end of the century sneers at it as one of the follies of
the time. Meanwhile the idea of Nero's return had begun to take its
place in the creations ofJewish and Christian fancy. . . . The legend
has been used by St John to represent the revival of Nero's persecuting
policy by Domitian. 11
Nero so fearfully impressed the world in his era that pagan,
Jewish, and Christian legends quickly began to grow up around his
death and to assert themselves among the general populace throughout
the far-flung reaches of the empire. Pretenders to the imperial
11. Swete, Rewlution, p. 163. Robinson is not impressed with the "elaborate attempts
to trace stages in the development of this myth" by Peake, BeckWith, and Charles (John
A. T. Robinson, Redatzng kNtw Testarwd Philadelphia Westminster, 1976, p. 245 and
note).
T/w Nero Redivivus Myth 303
throne are recorded to have employed the myth in quests for power.
In the pagan literature references to the expectation of Nero's return
after his fall from power can be found in the writings of Tacitus,
Suetonius, Dio Cassius, Xiphilinus, Zonaras, and Dion Chrysostom.
12 Among Jewish Talmudists the myth surfaces in the tract
Gittin, 13 The Ascension of Isaiah (4:2ff), as well as in the Jewish
Sibylline Oracles. In Christian circles it is mentioned in books by
Lactantius, Sulpicius Severus, Jerome, and Augustine. 14 Several Sibylline
Oracles of various origins – Christian, Jewish, and pagan – use
the myth, as well. 15
Clearly the existence, spread, and influence of the Nero Rediviuus
myth cannot be disputed. It is a unique legend in all of political
history. But the questions that must here be dealt with are: Does
Revelation employ the myth? And if it does, does the employment of
it necessitate a late date for the composition of Revelation?
Early Date Response
if the Myth Be Accepted
Despite the confidence with which some late date advocates
employ the Nero Redivivus myth, it is of more than a little interest to
note briefly two intriguing facts. First, not all late date proponents
allow the argument as si~ificant to the question of the dating of
Revelation. While establishing the arguments for the Domitianic date
for Revelation, Guthrie, a most able late date adherent, considers the
merits of the Nero Redivivus argument, but discourages its endorsement
in the debate: "1 t must be regarded as extremely inconclusive
for a Domitianic date. The most that can be said is that it may
possibly point to this." 16
Astonishingly, Mounce uses the myth as an evidence for the late
date of Revelation in his introduction to his commentary, but then
12. Taeitus, Histories 1 :2; 2:8, 9; Suetonius, Nero 40, 57; Domitian 6; Dio Cassius, Roman
Histo~ 63:9:3; 66: 19:3; Xiphilinus 64:9; Zonaras, Annals 11:151-8; and Dion Chyrsostom,
Oratwru21.
13. See Frederic W. Farrar, T/u Ear~ Days of Christiati~ (New York: Cassell, 1884),
p. 467.
14. Lactantius, On The Death of the Persecutors 2; Sulpicius Severus, Sacred Hi.stoT 2:28;
Jerome, Daniel 11 :28; and Augustine, The Ci~ of God 2019:3.
15. Si@lline Orackn 3:63ff.; 4: 1151Y; 5:331T,; 8:68ff.; 12:78; 13:89fE
16. Donald Guthrie, New Te$tamcmt Zrztroductzms, 3rd ed. (Downers Grove, IL: Inter-
Varsity Press, 1970), p. 954.
304 BEFORE JERUSALEM FELL
does not allow it as an assured interpretation in his commentary on
the appropriate passages ! In fact, at Revelation 13:3, after mentioning
the Nero Rediviuus myth, he refutes the application to Nero: "A
basic problem with identi$ing the slain head as Nero (or any specific
emperor), is that the text does not say that the had was restored. It
was the beast who recovered from the death-stroke upon one of his
heads."17 He then immediately offers optional interpretations that
he deems more likely. At Revelation 17:11 he states of the interpretation
he seems to favor that "this interpretation requires no reliance
upon the Nero Redivivus myth." 18 If the Nero Redivivus myth is
noteworthy as an historical datum for establishing the date of the
book, why would it not be demonstrably present in these very passages?
Why does he hesitate to employ it?
Second, a number of ear~ date advocates accept the myth as
existent within Revelation, but nevertheless maintain their Neronic
dating position. Among older early date commentators who employ
the myth we can list Stuart, Russell, Henderson, Macdonald, and
Farrar.lg Robinson stands out as a contemporary early date voice for
the Nero Redivivus myth: "As virtually all agree, there must be a
reference to Nero redivivw in the beast that 'once was alive and is alive
no longer but has yet to ascend out of the abyss before going to
perdition.' "2° It is most interesting to find proponents of widely
different dating schools able to admit the presence of an element that
one school proffers as a leading proof for its position!
Harbingers of tb Myth
Beyond these two initial problems, however, there are significant
and reasonable possibilities available to hand that wholly undermine
17. Mounce, Rmdation, p. 253.
18. Ibid., p. 316.
19. Moses Stuart, Comtia~ on tb A@a~/sse, 2 vols. (Andover: Allen, Morrill, and
Wardwell, 1845) 2:436ff.; J. Stuart Russell, The Parom"a: A Stu@ $ the New Testarnerd
Doctrine of Our LA's Second Coming, 2nd ed. (Grand Rapids: Baker, 1887 1983), pp.
557ff.; B. W. Henderson, The Lz@ and Princi>ate of tlu Emperor Nero (London: Methuen,
1903), pp. 418ff.; James M. Macdonald, T/u Lt~e and Writing$ ofSt. John (London: Hodder
& Stoughton, 1877, pp. 164ff.; Farrar, Ear~ Days, pp. 464-474. Diisterdieck cites the
following early date adherents as employing the myth in their commentaries: Lucke, De
Wette, Bleek, Baur, Volkmar, Hilgenfeld, and Renan (Friedrich Diisterdieck, Crittial ad
Exegetual Handbook to the Revelation of John, 3rd cd., trans. Henry E. Jacobs New York:
Funk and Wagnalls, 1886, p. 371).
20. Robinson, Redating, p. 245.
The Nero Redivivus Myth 305
the Nero Rediuivus argument for a late date. Granting for the moment
the validity of the Johannine employment of the Nero Rediuiuu.s myth,21
we must understand that there were well-known harbingers of the
dread that Nero would cause, of his untimely demise, and, it was
believed, of the fortunes he would later regain. The Nero Rediuivus
myth did not come from nowhere. Its seed was firmly planted early
in his reign and well-watered by the deluge of tyranny that he
unleashed in the later years of his reign. In fact, "this popular belief
in regard to Nero was founded on a prediction of the soothsayers in
the early part of his reign."22 Stuart argues quite ably that it had
ample time to disseminate from this early prediction.23 An important
passage from Suetonius reads: "Astrologers had predicted to Nero
that he would one day be repudiated, which was the occasion of that
well known saying of his: CA humble art affords us daily bread,'
doubtless uttered to justifi him in practicing the art of lyre-playing,
as an amusement while emperor, but a necessity for a private citizen.
Some of them, however, had promised him the rule of the East, when
he was cast off, a few expressly naming the sovereignty ofJerusalem,
and several the restitution of all his former fortunes. "24 Judging from
Suetonius, a number of astrological predictions were made regarding
Nero well before his death. For such predictions to be made among
a credulous and superstitious population regarding an emperor later
shown to be a mad man, they must have had their influence on the
Nero Redioiwts myth.
21. The alleged use of such a popular myth by a writer of Scripture is not necessarily
inimical to the revelational quality of Scripture. If it is indeed employed, such would be
an argumentwn ex coruessu. The very use of it by such conservative scholars as cited
previously should indicate such. After all, did not Paul pick up on popular thought to
illustrate a point when he wrote: "One of themselves, a prophet of their own, said,
'Cretans are always liars, evil beasts, lazy gluttons.' This testimony is true" (Tit, 1:12,
13) ? Stuart illustrates the matter further by reference to Christ's sayings about the
Pharisees casting out demons and about demons wandering through dry places (Stuart,
Apoca@pse 1 :325). He wrote in addition that "We cannot rationally suppose John to have
believed the heathen predictions, that Nero would rise from the dead and actually
reappear as emperor. The most that we can reasonably suppose, is an allusion to the
common report, and in this way to give a hint as to the individual who is meant to be
designated by the beast. In short the more I reflect on these circumstances, the more I
am compelled to believe, that John wrote his bcmk pending the Neronian persecution"
(ibid. 1:277-278).
22. Macdonald, L$e and Writsngs, p. 165.
23. Stuart, Apoca@fue 2:435.
24. Suetonius, Nero 40:2.
306 BEFORE JERUSALEM FELL
As a matter of fact, Suetonius makes note of the bad omens that
presented themselves on the very day of his being hailed emperor on
October 13, A.D. 54. Suetonius speaks of Nero's effort to avoid their
outcome by careful (superstitious) planning of his entrance: "When
the death of Claudius was made public, Nero, who was seventeen
years old, went forth to the watch between the sixth and seventh
hour, since no earlier time for the formal beginning of his reign
seemed suitable because of bad omens throughout the day. "25 Could
it not be that the concurrence of these pagan expectations from early
in Nero's reign composed the fertile soil in which such a myth as
before us could grow? I_ the myth is used by John in Revelation,
could not John – either as a knowledgeable citizen, but especially as
an inspired prophet! — have discerned such an early expectation in
these portents as pre-indicators pointing his readers to the man Nero?
Tb Rapid Spread of the Myth
In the second place, the myth-rumor is known to have made its
effects felt almost immediately upon Nero's death. This was probably
in response to two factors: ( 1 ) his tyrannical reign, coupled with the
human "fear of the worst" that his reign had bred in his citizens, and
(2) the preparation for the myth by the above-mentioned harbingers.
"In Asia the story of Nero's recovery was common talk as early as
A.D. 69."26
Both Tacitus and Suetonius agree as to the early impact of the
Nero Rediviun rumor. Just prior to Galba's murder early in A.D. 69,
the following events occurred, according to Tacitus:
About this time Achaia and Asia were terrified by a false rumour of
Nero's arrival. The reports with regard to his death had been varied,
and therefore many people imagined and believed that he was alive.
The fortunes and attempts of other pretenders we shall tell as we
proceed; but at this time, a slave from Pontus or, as others have
reported, a freedman from Italy, who was skilled in playing on the
cithara and in singing, gained the readier belief in his deceit through
these accomplishments and his resemblance to Nero. He recruited
some deserters, poor tramps whom he had bribed by great promises,
and put to sea. A violent storm drove him to the island of Cythnus,
where he called to his standard some soldiers who were returning from
25. Suetonius, Nmo 8.
26. Swete, Revelatwn, p. cii.
Tk Nero Redivivus Myth 307
the East on leave, or ordered them to be killed if they refused. Then
he robbed the merchants, and armed all the ablest-bodied of their
slaves. A centurion, Sisenna, who was carrying clasped right hands,
the symbol of friendship, to the praetorians in the name of the army
in Syria, the pretender approached with various artifices, until Sisenna
in alarm and fearing violence secretly left the island and made
his escape. Then the alarm spread far and wide. Many came eagerly
forward at the famous name, prompted by their desire for a change
and their hatred of the present situation. The fame of the pretender
was increasing from day to day when a chance shattered it.27
Several aspects of this record are of great interest. The foremost
is that the effort to deceive on the basis of the myth was attempted,
showing the currency of the myth early in A.D. 69.28 The second is
that the attempt was initially successful for a brief spell. The Parthians
"were near to engaging in war, through the deception of a
pretended Nero''!29 Another aspect worthy of note is that the myth
caused terror in Asia, the very area to which John sent Revelation.
Finally, Tacitus notes that "the alarm spread far and wide" and that
"the fame of the pretender was increasing from day to day." Thus,
here a significant and dangerous political and military impact is
briefly made by the myth in the empire prior to A.D. 70.
Suetonius records that immediately after the death of Nero on
June 9, A.D. 68, and for some time beyond, a number of people used
to expect and were prepared for Nero's return: "Yet there were some
who for a long time decorated his tomb with spring and summer
flowers, and now produced his statues on the rostra in the fringed
toga, and now his edicts, as if he were still alive and would shortly
return and deal destruction to his enemies. "3°
If Revelation was written prior to A.D. 70 could not John have
employed these things ex concessti? And since he was a prophet, could
he not have made use of the coming widespread expectation? These
considerations alone render the Nero Redivivti.s myth virtually useless
as a tool to establishing a late date for Revelation.
27. Tacitus, Hi.rtones 2:8.
28. Interestingly, but not convincingly, Weigall suggests of this episode that it may
have been Nero himselfl "It seems to me not at all impossible that he was really Nero,
who had recovered from the wound ." (Arthur Weigall, Nero: Emperor of Rome
London: Butterworth, 1933, p. 298).
29. Tacitus, Hi.itor-ies 1:2.
30. Suetonius, Nero 57.
308 BEFORE JERUSALEM FELL
Early Date Refutation of the Myth
Despite the intri~ing correspondences between the Nero Rediuivu.s
myth and several verses in Revelation, by no means is it a foregone
conclusion that the two are related. The present writer at one time
held to the early date Nero Redivivzu view of Stuart, Russell, Farrar,
and others on this matter. He has since come to reject it, however,
for a more plausible understanding of the passages in question. The
non-Nero Redivivus interpretive views of other competent early date
advocates is superior in every respect to the one considered above.3
Galba as "Nero Redivivus"
One reasonable alternative interpretation of the relevant passages
is the possibility that the sixth head's revival in the eighth head
speaks merely of a semus in which Nero lived again. That is, it could
be that the slain head that died was in fact Nero, but that his return
to life as the eighth head was not a literal, corporeal reappearance
on the scene of history, but a moral and symbolical return. For
instance, Revelation 17:10-11 reads: "and they are seven kings; five
have fallen, one is, the other has not yet come; and when he comes,
he must remain a little while. And the beast which was and is not, is
himself also an eighth, and is one of the seven, and he goes to
destruction." Literally, the seventh emperor of Rome was Galba, who
reigned only "a little while," i.e., from June, A.D. 68 to January 1,
A.D. 69. The eighth emperor, however, was Otho. Suetonius tells us
something of Otho that is of great interest if this interpretive route
be taken. Upon presenting himself to the Senate and returning to the
palace, it is said of Otho: "When in the midst of the other adulations
of those who congratulated and flattered him, he was hailed by the
common herd as Nero, he made no sign of dissent; on the contrary,
according to some writers, he even made use of that surname in his
commissions and his first letters to some of the governors of the
provinces."3 2 Tacitus, too, speaks of Otho's predilection for Nero: "It
was believed that he also brought up the question of celebrating
31. Diisterdieck, Revelation, pp. 371ff.; Schaff, HistoU 1 :390tl; F. J. A. Hort, Ttu
Apoca~pse of St. John: I-III (London: Macmillan, 1908), p. xxix; David Chilton, Tb Days
of Vlgearwe: An Expositwn of the Book of Revelation (Fort Worth: Dominion Press, 1987),
pp. 328ff.; Bernhard Weiss, A ComnwztaT on the New Testarmmt, 4 vols., trans. George H.
Schodde and Epiphanies Wilson (New York: Funk and Wagnalls, 1906) 4453fI
32. Suetonius, Otho 7. .
Th Nero Redivivus Myth 309
Nero's memory with the hope of winning over the Roman people;
and in fact some set up statues of Nero; moreover on certain days the
people and soldiers, as if adding thereby to Otho's nobility and
distinction, acclaimed him as Nero Otho."33 Dio Cassius mentions
the same idea: "But men did not fail to realize that his rule was sure
to be even more licentious and harsh than Nero's. Indeed, he immediately
added Nero's name to his own."34
Otho replaced the statues of Nero's wife, recalled Nero's procurators
and freedman to their oilices, "accepted the very title of 'Nero'
bestowed upon him 'in jlatte~ and aJ tb highest honour' by the lower
classes, and even, according to a court historian, used this title in
official dispatches sic to Spain. "35
The same was true of Vitellius, the ninth emperor, as well. Dio
Cassius says that "Vitellius . . . delighted in and commended the
name and the life and all the practices of Nero. "36 Vitellius "imitated
Nero closely, and gready pleased the public by offering sacrifices
to Nero's spirit in the Campus Martius, making all the priests and
people attend."37 Suetonius records this aspect of Vitellius's fascination
with Nero: "And to leave no doubt in anyone's mind what model
he chose for the government of the State, he made funerary offerings
to Nero in the middle of the Campus Martius, attended by a great
throng of the official priests."38
Thus, a case easily as credible as that drawn from the Nero
Rediuium approach can be made for Nero's reliving in the adulation
and actions of his predecessors. The major difficulty confronting this
view is that it is not likely that such would cause the world to
"wonder" after the Beast (Rev. 13:3). Of course, it could be that for
both those who feared Nero, as well as those who loved him, there
would be a strong element of "wonder" at the revivification of Nero's
name and style. In light of Revelation 13:12 this view is particularly
enhanced by the fact that Vitellius engaged in offering sacrifices to
33. Tacitus, Hidotie$ 1:78.
34. Dio Cassius, Roman Histoty 63.
35. Henderson, Nero, p. 418. See also discussion in Weigall, Nero, pp. 294ff.
36. Dio Cassius, Roman Histo~ 65:4.
37. Weigall, Nero, p. 300. See also Henderson, Nero, p. 418. Vitellius's fascination with
Nero was so extensive that Vespasian had to make a determined effort to check the
growth of the Nero cult when he came to powe~ Weigall, N.ro, pp. 300K
38. Suetonius, Vitelliw 11:2.
310 BEFORE JERUSALEM FELL
Nero's spirit and making all the priests and people attend.
Rome as "Nero Redivivu.s"
An even more compelling view, however, is available to the
interpreter, one that is certainly to be preferred above either the Nero
Rediviuus or the approach just mentioned. The present writer is
convinced that an extremely strong case can be made for an interpretation
that meets all the requirements of the case and avoids the
potentially rocky shoals of the implementation of a legend. The
interpretation to be given is most ajwotos, not only in regard to one
of the major events of the first century, but also to the theme of
Revelation.
As we set forth this interpretation, it will be necessary to recall
that John allows some shifting in his imagery of the Beast: the
seven-headed Beast is here conceived generically as the Roman Empire,
there specifically as one particular emperor. It is impossible to
lock down the Beast imagery to either one referent or the other.3g At
some places the Beast has seven-heads that are seven kings collectively
considered (Rev. 13: 1; Rev. 17:3, 9-10). Thus, he is generically
portrayed as a kingdom with seven kings that arise in chronological
succession (cc Rev. 17:10- 11). But then again in the very same
contexts the Beast is spoken of as an individual (Rev. 13:18), as but
one head among the seven (Rev. 17: 11). This feature, as frustrating
as it may be, is recognized by many commentators. It has already
been demonstrated that the sixth head (Rev. 17: 10) that received the
mortal wound (Rev. 13:1, 3) with a sword (Rev. 13:10, 14) and that
was mysteriously numbered "666" (Rev. 13: 18) is Nero Caesar, the
sixth emperor of Rome who died by a sword from his own hand .a
Recognizing this shifting referent takes one a long way toward
39. It is very interesting to note a related and remarkable feature in the Johannine
methodology. John frequently gets his point across with double-meaning terms. Under
his brief discussion of "Johannine Theology" Gundry writes of John's record of Jesus'
teaching that the words "often carry second and even third meanings. 'Born again (or
anew)' also means 'born from above' (3:3ff.), and the reference to Jesus' being 'lifted up'
points not only to the method of His execution, but also to His resurrection and
exaltation back to heaven (12:20-36, especially 32) ." For an interesting discussion of this
feature of John's style see Leon Morns, T/u Gospel According to John (Grand Rapids
Eerdmans, 1971), "Introduction," and ad. 10C.
4s). Chap. 10.
Tb Nero Redivivus Myth 311
resolving the interpretive issue before us. The mortal sword wound
is to one of the heads (Rev. 13:3), and is a wound that apparently
should have ended even the life of the Beast generically considered:
for "the whole earth was amazed and followed after the beast" (Rev.
13:3) after the wound was healed and the Beast continued alive. The
seven-headed Beast seems. indestructible, for the cry goes up: "Who
is like the beast, and who is able to wage war with him?" (Rev. 13:4).
At this point we need to reflect upon a most significant series of
historical events in the first century. If our arguments regarding the
appearance of Nero in Revelation commend themselves to the judicious
mind, then a perfectly reasonable and historical – rather than
legendary – explanation of the revived beast lies before the interpreter.
When Nero committed suicide two major interrelated historical
situations presented themselves to the world with catastrophic
consequences: First, with the death of Nero the Julio-Claudian line
of emperors perished from the earth. In superstitious, pagan fashion
Suetonius notes that "many portents" foreshadowed the tragedy that
was to be, i.e., that "the race of the Caesars ended with Nero."4' The
blood line that had given birth to, extended, stabilized, brought
prosperity to, and had received worship, from the Roman Empire
was cut off forever. "Upon the death of Nero on June 9, A.D. 68, the
first line of Roman Emperors, that of the 'Julio-Claudian' House,
became extinct. Whatever the demerit of its Princes may have been,
their continuity of descent at least presemed the Roman Empire from
the horrors of civil war."42 Thus, "through the death of the last
Emperor from the original imperial Julian family, namely Nero, it
seemed as though the old imperial power had received its deathblow."
43 By itsel~ the cessation of the famed Julio-Claudian line
would have caused dismay among the citizens of the empire. But this
event does not stand alone.
Second, following the death of Nero and the extinction of the
Julian House, the Roman Empire was hurled into a civil war of such
ferocity and proportions that it almost destroyed the empire, seriously
threatening to reduce even "eternal Rome" to rubble. This
41. Suetonius, Galba 1.
42. B. W. Henderson, Fiue Roman Emperors (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,
1927), p. 1.
43. Weiss, ComnwnJaV 4453.
312 BEFORE JERUSALEM FELL
well-known factw is of tremendous importance in first century world
history. Were the book of Revelation written during Nero's reign and
in regard to the Neronic evils, as the wealth of evidence presented
demands, we should expect that prophetic allusions to Rome's Civil
War would appear.
In introducing the days following the death of Nero and the
beginning the ascension of Galba, Tacitus writes:
The history on which I am entering is that of a period rich in disasters,
terrible with battles, torn by civil struggles, horrible even in peace.
Four emperors fell by the sword; there were three civil wars, more
foreign wars and often both at the same time. There was success in
the East i.e., the Jewish War, misfortune in the West. Illyricum was
disturbed, the Gallic provinces wavering, Britain subdued and immediately
let go. The Sarmatae and Suebi rose against us; the Dacians
won fame by defeats inflicted and suffered; even the Parthians were
almost roused to arms through the trickery of a pretended Nero.
Moreover, Italy was distressed by disasters unknown before or returning
after the lapse of ages. . . . Rome was devastated by conflagrations,
in which her most ancient shrines were consumed and the very
Capitol fired by citizens' hands. Sacred rites were defiled; there were
adulteries in high places. The sea was filled with exiles, its cliffs made
foul with the bodies of the dead. In Rome there was more awful
cruelty. High birth, wealth, the refusal or acceptance of office – all
gave ground for accusations, and virtues caused the surest ruin. The
rewards of the informers were no less hateful than their crimes; for
some, gaining priesthoods and consulships as spoils, others, obtaining
positions as imperial agents and secret influence at court, made havoc
and turmoil everywhere, inspiring hatred and terror. Slaves were
corrupted against their masters, freedmen against their patrons; and
those who had no enemy were crushed by their friends. . . . Besides
the manifold misfortunes that befell mankind, there were prodigies in
the sky and on the earth, warnings given by thunderbolts, and prophecies
of the future, both joyful and gloomy, uncertain and clear. For
never was it more fully proved by awful disasters of the Roman people
or by indubitable signs that gocls care not for our safety, but for our
punishment.45
44. As Josephus notes of the Roman civil wars of this era "I have omitted to give an
exact account of them, because they are well known by all, and they are described by a
great number of Greek and Roman authors" (War$ 49:2).
45. Tacitus, Histotis 1:2-3.
T/w Nero Redivivus Myth 313
Although some of the details of this lamentation reach beyond the
Roman Civil War era of A.D. 68-69, most of it focuses on just that
era and relates the very events of that upheaval. Tacitus's detailed
account of the ruin wreaked upon Rome almost equals in psychological
horror and cultural devastation that which befell Jerusalem during
the Jewish War as recorded by Josephus. Surely the Roman Civil
War (or, more literally, Civil Wars) was the %rstfruits of Nero's
death."%
These civil wars would, to all appearance, strike the citizens of
the empire – Christian and pagan alike – as being the very death
throes of Rome. Indeed, in Tacitus's estimation it very nearly was
so: "This was the condition of the Roman state when Serius Galba,
chosen consul for the second time, and his colleague Titus Vinius
entered upon the year that was to be for Galba his last and@ th ~tate
almost the end. "47 The seven-headed Beast (Rome), before the world's
startled eyes, was toppling to its own death as its sixth head (Nero)
was mortally wounded. As Suetonius viewed the long months immediately
following Nero's death, the empire "for a long time had been
unsettled, and as it were, drifting, through the usurpation and violent
death of three emperors."48 Josephus records the matter as perceived
by Titus and Vespasian while they were engaged in the Jewish War
in A.D. 69: "And now they were both in suspense about the public
affairs, the Roman empire being then in a fluctuating condition, and
did not go on with their expedition against the Jews, but thought
that to make any attack upon a foreigner was now unseasonable, on
account of the solicitude they were in for their own country."4g
According to the pseudo-prophecy of 4 Ezra (or 2 Esdras) 12:16-
19, written around A.D. 100 (thirty years after the events50), the
Empire51 was "in danger of falling" -. "This is the interpretation of the
twelve wings which you saw. As for your hearing a voice that spoke,
coming not from the eagle's heads but from the midst of his body,
46. Henderson, Fwe Roman Emperors, p. 87.
47. Tacitus, I%tor-ia 1:11. Emphasis mine.
48. Suetonius, VZs@sian 1:1.
49. Josephus, Wars 49:2.
50. Bruce Metzger, "The Fourth Book of Ezra," in James H. Charlesworth, cd., Old
Tatamtmt Pseudepigrapha, 2 vols (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1983) 1:520.
51. Metzger, in agreement with almost all pseudepigraphical scholars, notes that
"The eagle, Ezra is told, represents the Roman Empire, which will be punished by God's
Messiah for persecuting his elect ( 12: 10-34)" (rlna'., p. 517).
314 BEFORE JERUSALEM FELL
this is the interpretation: in the midst of the time of that kingdom
great struggles shall arise, and it shall be in danger of falling; nevertheless
it shall not fall then, but shall regain its former power."
Josephus, a Jew from the province that included Israel, agrees that
during this time Rome was brought near to utter "ruin."52 He notes
that "about this time it was that heavy calamities came about Rome
on all sides."53 The reports of the destruction and rapine were so
horrible that it is reported of General Vespasian: "And as this sorrow
of his was violent, he was not able to support the torments he was
under, nor to apply himself further in other wars when his native
country was laid waste."54 Josephus writes elsewhere that "the Roman
government was in a great internal disorder, by the continual
changes of its rulers, and the Germans understood that every part
of the habitable earth under them was in an unsettled and tottering
condition. "55 Men everywhere understood that "the state of the
Remans was so ill."5G
But what eventually occurred at the end of these "death throes"?
The rest of Suetonius's quotation begun above informs us that "the
empire, which for a long time had been unsettled and, as it were,
drifting through the usurpation and violent death of three emperors,
was at last taken in and given stability by the Flavian family."57
Josephus concurs with this view of things when he writes: "So upon
this confirmation of Vespasian's entire government, which was now
settled, and upon tfu unexpected deliverance of the public affairs of t/u
Remans j$-om ruin, Vespasian turned his thoughts to what remained
unsubdued in Judea. "58 Thus, after a time of grievous Civil War, the
Empire was revived by the ascending of Vespasian to the purple.
Through the death of the last Emperor from the original imperial
Julian family, namely Nero, it seemed as though the old imperial
power had received its death-blow. In the times of the so-called
Interregnum new Emperors were constantly trying to secure the
throne, but not one could secure a permanent or generally recognized
52. Josephus, Wan 4:11:5.
53. Zbid., 410:1.
54. Ibid., 4102.
55. Ibid. 7:42.
56. Ibid. 7:42
57. l@aiUn 1:1.
58. Wars 411:5. Emphasis mine.
Th Nero Redivivus Myth 315
authority. Thereupon, by the fact that Vespasian was made Emperor
and in an orderly manner was confirmed by the Senate, the moral
wound of the beast is healed and in the new imperial family of the
Flavians the Roman Empire is restored in its old and firm power.59
A number of celebrated scholars (e.g., Schaff and Dusterdieck) ,60
view the matter thus, including some even of the late date school
(e.g., Caird and Moffatt) .61 Moffatt is a particularly interesting case
in point. He attempts to hold to the best of both worlds, as it were,
when he writes at Revelation 13:3: "The allusion is . . . to the
terrible convulsions which in 69 A.D. shook the empire to its foundations
(Tat. Htit. i. 11 ). Nero's death with the bloody interregnum after
it, was a wound to the State, from which it only recovered under
Vespasian."G2 To discover such a vigorous late date advocate and
Nero Rediuiuus enthusiast admitting that the references can be applied
to the Roman Civil War and Rome's revival under Vespa.sian, is to
discover a telling admission. If the verses in Revelation can properly
be understood as making reference to the earth-shaking historical
events of the era, why would any commentator be driven to employ
a myth to make sense of the passages? And this being the case, how
can the myth be used as a major dating datum from the internal
evidence? If such a vigorous, liberal advocate of the Domitianic date
as Moffatt is willing to allow such, why should not the more cautious,
evangelical scholars allow it?
The reference to the "eighth" king (Rev. 17:11) might seem a
difllculty for this view. This is because the eighth emperor of Rome
was actually Otho, the second of the interregnum rulers, and not
Vespasian, who actually gave life again to the Empire. Exegetically
it should be noted that in the chronological line of the seven heads/
kings, John speaks of the matter with exactness by use of the definite
article. That is, he writes in Revelation 17:10 (we translate it literally):
"thz of five fell, the d one is, the d other not yet come, and
whenever he comes a little time it behooves him to remain. " But the
definite article is conspicuously absent in the reference to the eighth
59. Weiss, Comrmmta~ 4453-454.
60. Philip Schaff, Hirtoy of th Christian Church, 8 vols. (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans,
1910 1950) 1:390, 428;D iisterdieck, Revelation, pp. 374-375.
61. G. B. Caird, A Commenta~ on the Revelation of St. John the Diviru (New York: Harper
& Row, 1966), p. 164; Moffatt, Revelation, p. 430.
62. Zbtd., p. 430.
316 BEFORE JERUSALEM FELL
head/king in Revelation 17:11: "And the beast which was and is not,
even he is an eighth." Of course, there is no indefinite article in Greek,
but the omission of the definite article that clearly and repetitively
defined the chronological series of head/kings ("the five," "th one,"
"trie one to come") vanishes before the eighth is mentioned. Thus, the
eighth is "an eighth, " i.e., it refers not to any one particular individual,
but to the revival of the Empire itself as the heads are beginning
to be replaced. The Roman Empire which will later revive its persecuting
relationship to Christianity in its revived form is arising from
ruin.
There is a very important sense in which the revival of the
Empire under Vespasian, was a revival under "an eighth," who is
"of the seven." It is the same Roman Empire that is brought to life
from the death of Civil War. John's concern is particularly with the
contemporaneous events, i.e., here the Roman Civil War that occurred
within the compass of the reign of the seven kings. The eighth
is beyond his most pressing and immediate concern (although it is
not unimportant), and thus is not specified and detailed.63 The fact
that this revival is of an eighth head, however, indicates the rapid
recovery of the Beast.w That recovery will come shortly after the
demise of the original seven.
Conclusion
The revival of the Beast is a remarkable and significant aspect
of Revelation's message. Although late date advocacy presents an
intriguing argument based on this phenomenon, in the final analysis
it fails of its purpose. Even if the Nero Legend were in John's mind,
its seeds were planted early in Nero's reign and its first appearance
as a powerfiul influence in civil affairs occurred in A.D. 69.
More importantly, a reasonable and persuasive case can be
63. Chilton has perceptively noted that the number eight is that of resurrection, for
Jesus was resurrected on the eighth day, i.e., Sunday. He alludes to its significance here
in showing the revival of Roman tyranny which is to come. See Chilton, Days of Vengeawe,
p. 436. See also E. W. Bullinger, Tb Companion Btble (London: Samuel Baxter and Sons,
rep. 1970), appendix 10,
64. The dispensationalist recognizes the importance of the fall of Rome in Revelation.
But rather than seeing it as contemporaneous with the life of John and the original
recipients of his book, he sees it as the fall of Rome a few hundred years later and followed
millennia later by a "revived Roman Empire." See for instance John F. Walvoord, The
Revelation ofJesw Christ (Chicago: Moody, 1966), p. 9.
The Nero Redivivus Myth 317
made for a view of the relevant passages that avoids all reference to
the Nero Rediviw.s myth. The earth-shaking events associated with the
death of Nero and the eventual ascension of Vespasian easily fulfill
the prophecies ofJohn. In light of such a plausible view, the objection
against the early date on the basis of the myth must be wholly
removed.
19
THE CONDITION OF THE
SEVEN CHURCHES
The final pro-Domitianic argument from the internal evidence
that we will consider is that which is drawn from the epistolary
preface to Revelation. It is averred by many that the Seven Letters
to the churches of Asia contain historical allusions demanding a late
date. Turning our attention again to the order of argument given by
Morris, we cite his fourth objection to the early date: "A further
indication is that the churches of Asia Minor seem to have a period
of development behind them. This would scarcely have been possible
at the time of the Neronic persecution, the only serious competitor
in date to the Domitianic period. " 1 Guthrie also lists this as his fourth
argument, and confidently so. After expressing some hesitancy in
employing the Nero Rediviuus myth, he notes of the present argument
that here "we are on firmer ground" due to "certain positive indications
of internal conditions" indicated in the letters.2 This line of
reasoning is cited as Swete's first point in establishing the late date
from internal considerations;3 it appears as the second argument in
Charles, Moffatt, and Mounce (among his minor arguments), and
third in Kummel.4
1. Leon Morns, The Remdation of St. John (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1969), p. 37.
2. Donald Guthrie, New 7hhrnent Zntrorktion, 3rd ed. (Downers Grove, IL: Inter-
Varsity Press, 1970), p. 954.
3. Henry Barclay Swete, CornrnentuV on Revelation (Grand Rapids: Kregel, 1906
1977), pp. c-ci.
4. R. H. Charles, The Revelation of St. John, 2 vols. International Critical Commentary
(Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark, 1920) 1 :xci~ James Moffatt, The Reue/attin of St. John the
Diuim, in W. R. Nicoll, cd., Englishman's Greek Testament, vol. 5 (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans,
rep. 19S0), p. 316; Werner Georg Kummel, Introdwtwn to #w New Testati, 17th
ed., trans. Howard C. Kee (Nashville Abingdon, 1973), p. 469; Robert H. Mounce, T/w
Book of Revelation. New International Commentary on the New Testament (Grand
Rapids: Eerdmans, 1977), p. 34.
318
The Condition of the Sewn Churches 319
The data discerned from this perspective is almost universally
employed among late date advocates. Although there is a wide
variety of approaches constructed from the material of the Seven
Letters, only the more solid evidences will be tested at this juncture.
We will show that none of the arguments is detrimental to early date
advocacy. In keeping with the approach utilized throughout this
section of our work, we will follow the order found in Morris's work
on Revelation.
The Wealth of the Church in Laodicea (Rev. 3: 17)
Revelation 3:17 reads:
Because you say, "I am rich, and have become wealthy, and have
need of nothing," and you do not know that you are wretched and
miserable and poor and blind and naked.
Morris notes that in the Laodicean letter "we are told that the church
in Laodicea was 'rich, and increased with goods' (iii. 17). But as the
city was destroyed by an earthquake in A.D. 60/61 this must have
been considerably later."5 Mounce and Kummel also endorse this
observation, a major component of the complex of evidence derived
from the Seven Letters.c
It is true that Laodicea was destroyed by an earthquake about
this time; the evidence for both the fact of the earthquake and its date
are clear from Tacitus.7 The idea behind the argument is that such
a devastating event as an earthquake must necessarily have severe
and long term economic repercussions on the community. And in
such a community, the minority Christians could be expected to have
suffered, perhaps even disproportionately. If Revelation were written
sometime in the period from A.D. 64-70, it would seem to Morris,
Mounce, and others, that the time-frame would be too compressed
to allow for the enrichment of the church at Laodicea, as is suggested
in Revelation. But by the time of Domitian a few decades later, such
5. Morris, Revelation, p. 37.
6. Mounce, Revelation, p. 35 and Kiimmel, Irstrodaction, p. 469.
7. Tacitus, Annals 1427. Most scholars accept the dating from Tacitus. Eusebius
(Chronicle 64) and Orosius speak of it as occurring after the fire that destroyed Rome in
A.D. 64, according to C. J. Hemer, A Stub of the L.dters to the Seven Churcbs of Asia with
Special Re@ru to Their Local Background (Manchester: unpublished Ph.D. dissertation,
1969), p. 417; cited in Mounce, R.melation, p. 123, n. 31.
320 BEFORE JERUSALEM FELL
an enrichment of the church would not be difficult to imagine.
Despite the Prima Jacie plausibility of this argument it does not
carry sufficient weight to serve as an anchor for the late date theory.
Some suspicion is immediately cast on the argument when it is noted
that it is avoided by such noteworthy late date advocates as conservative
scholars Swete and Guthrie, and such liberal proponents as
Charles and Moffatt.8 The refusal of these scholars to make reference
to this argument is not necessarily destructive to the cause, of course.
But it is at least curious that such vigorous liberal and conservative
advocates do not deem it to be of merit.
The Nature of the "Riches"
We should note also that it may be that the reference to "riches"
made by John is a reference to spiritual riches, and not to material
wealth at all.
These riches and other goods in which the Laodicean Church and
Angel gloried we must understand as spiritual riches in which they
fondly imagined they abounded. . . . This language in this application
is justified by numerous passages in Scripture: as by Luke xii.
21; 1 Cor. i:5; 2 Cor. viii. 9; above all, by two passages of holy irony,
1 Cor. iv. 8 and Hos. xii. 8; both standing in very closest connexion
with this; I can indeed hardly doubt that there is intended a reference
to the latter of these words of our Lord. The Laodicean Angel, and
the church he was drawing into the same ruin with himself, were
walking in a vain show and imagination of their own righteousness,
their own advances in spiritual insight and knowledge.g
A good number of commentators suggest allusion here to 1 Corinthians
4:8 and Hosea 12:8. Additional passages such as Luke 18:11, 12;
16: 15; and 1 Corinthians 13:1 can be consulted as well. If this
interpretation of "riches" in Revelation 3:17 is valid, then the entire
force of this argument is dispelled. Surprisingly, this is even the view
of Mounce: "The material wealth of Laodicea is well established.
The huge sums taken from Asian cities by Roman oficia.ls during the
Mithridatic period and following indicate enormous wealth. . . .
The 'wealth' claimed by the Laodicean church, however, was not
8. See references to their works cited above.
9. R. C. Trench, Comnwzta~ on the E@tks to t/u Seven Churctws, 4th ed. (London:
Macmillan, 1883), p. 210.
Th Condition of the Seven Churches 321
material but spiritual. . . . The Laodiceans felt they were secure
in their spiritual attainment ." 10
The Ease of the Recouery
In addition, there is the impressive historical evidence of the
situation that tends to undermine the rationale of the argument, even
if material riches are in view. Most ruinous to the entire argument is
the documented fact of Laodicea's apparently effortless, unaided, and
rapid recovery from the earthquake. Tacitus reports that the city did
not even find it necessary to apply for an imperial subsidy to help
them rebuild, even though such was customary for cities in Asia
Minor. As Tacitus records it, Laodicea "arose from the ruins by the
strength of her own resources, and with no help from us. " 11 This is
as clear a statement as is necessary to demonstrate that Laodicea's
economic strength was not radically diminished by the quake. Despite
the quake, economic resources were so readily available within
Laodicea that the city could easily recover itself from the damage.
Interestingly, both Morris and Mounce make reference to this statement
by Tacitus, despite their using the argument to demand a late
date. 12
Furthermore, it would seem that the time element would not be
extremely crucial for "earthquakes were very frequent thereabouts,
and rebuilding doubtless followed at once. " 13 The quake occurred in
A.D. 61; if Revelation were written as early as A.D. 65 or early A.D.
66 (as is likely), that would give four years for rebuilding. We must
remember that the recovery was self-generated. Simple economic
analysis demands that for the resources to survive, rebuilding would
have to be rapid.
Tb Epicenter of the Quake
In addition, who is to say that the Christian community was
10. Mounce, Revelation, p. 126. This is not the first time that Mounce employs an
argument in his introduction that he fails to follow through adequately in his commentary.
See our observations in Chap. 18 on his contradictory treatment of the Nero Rediviw-s
myth. It would seem most reasonable to expect that if the argument in his introduction
is to be given weight, it must not be allowed to shift its meaning in the commentary.
11. Tacitus, Annals 1427.
12. Morris, ReueLztwn, p. 37; Mounce, Revelation, p. 123.
13. F. J. A. Hort, Thz Apoca~pse of St. John: 1-111 (London: Macmillan, 1908), p. xx.
See Strabo (64 B.C. – A.D. 19), Geographic 12:8; Dio Cassius, Roman Hidoty 54:30.
322 BEFORE JERUSALEM FELL
necessarily overwhelmed by the quake in that city? After all, in the
Revelation 3:17 statement it is the church that is in view, not the city.
Even the horribly destructive earthquakes in Mexico City on September
19 and 20 of 1985 did not destroy every sector of the city. Perhaps,
by the grace of God, the Christians were in areas less tiected by the
quake, as Israel was in an area of Egypt unaffected by the plagues
(Ex. 8:22; 9:4, 6, 24; 10:23; 11:27). Would this token of God's providence
lead the Laodiceans to a too proud confidence in their
standing as in Revelation 3:17? Perhaps a roughly analogous situation
is found with the situation at Corinth, which Paul set about to
correct ( 1 Cor. 4:6-8).
The first argument from the Seven Letters is less than convincing.
The Existence of the Church in Smyrna
Morris's second evidence from the Seven Letters is that "the
church at Smyrna seems not to have been in existence in the days of
Paul."14 Obviously, if the church mentioned in Revelation 2:8-11 did
not exist until after Paul's death it would have to have been founded
later than A.D. 67 or 68. This would push the dates forward too far
to allow any view of Revelation's dating that precedes A.D. 67 or
68 – although it would not necessarily affect a date after A.D. 68 and
well before A.D. 95.
This late date objection is founded on the well-known statement
in a letter written to the church at Philippi by Polycarp: "But I have
not found any such thing in you i.e., the church at Philippi, neither
have heard thereo~ among whom the blessed Paul labored, who were
his letters in the beginning. For he boasteth of you in all those
churches which alone at that time knew God; for we knew him not
as yet." 15 Polycarp (c. A.D. 69-155), bishop of the church at Smyrna,
is thought to have been a disciple of John the Apostle. He seems to
refer here to the Smyrnaean church when he writes "we knew him
not as yet ." 16 This may mean: our church at Smyrna was not yet
14. Morris, Revelation, p. 37.
15. polyearp, LAter to th? Phili~piam 11:3.
16. The original Greek statement of Polycarp does not specifically use the word
"Smymaeans," which so many translators place into the text. See J. B. Lightfmt, The
Apostolic Fathers, 2 VOIS. (London: Maernillan, 1889) 2:926, or the Latin manuscript in J.
B. Lightfoot and J. R. Hermer, T/w Apostolic Father, (Grand Rapids: Baker, 1891 1984),
The Condition oj_ the Seven Churches 323
founded. Charles and Moffatt deem this to be the most substantial
of the arguments drawn from the contents of the Seven Letters.'7
Charles makes much of this argument, which is the only one from
the Seven Letters material that he presses into service in his section
on the date of Revelation:
The Church of Smyrna did not exist in 60-64 A.D. – at a time when
St. Paul was boasting of the Philippians in all the Churches. Cf.
Polycarp (AU' Phil . . . ). But though Polycarp's letter tells us that
the Church of Smyrna was not founded in 60-64 A. D., he gives no
hint as to when it was founded. Hence several years may have elapsed
after that date before it was founded. When, however, we turn to
Rev. 2:8-11 we find that our text presupposes a Church poor in wealth
but rich in good works, with a development of apparently many years
to its credit. This letter, then, may have been written in the closing
years of Vespasian (75-79) but hardly earlier. . . . The natural
conclusion, therefore, is that though our author wrote the Letters in
the reign of Vespasian, he re-edited them in the closing years of
Domitian for incorporation in his Book.18
Guthrie reckons this approach by Charles as having "considerable
weight, " although he points out that Feine and Behm "are very
cautious on this point. " 19 It appears as Moffatt's second argument
for a late datezo and has found currency in a host of scholarly works.21
The Interpretive Problem
We should note that scholarly objections even from more liberal
p. 172. This may or may not be a part of the problem; early date advocates Lightfoot
and Robinson do not express any reservations with understanding the pronoun to refer
to the Smyrnaeans. Light foot, Apostolic Fathers, 2:927. John A, T. Robinson, Redating the
New Testanwni (Philadelphia: Westminster, 1976), p. 229.
17. Charles, Revelation, 1 :xciv; James Moffatt, Introductwn to th Lderatwe of the New
fistament (Edinburgh: T. &T. Clark, 1911), p. 507.
18. Charles, Revelation, 1 :xciv.
19. Guthrie, lntrodudion, pp. 954 n. 6,955.
20. Moffatt, Revelation, p. 317.
21. See in addition to Morns, Mounce, Guthrie, Charles, and Moffatt, mentioned
heretofore: Theodor Zahn, Itirodwtion to the New Testament, 3rd ed., trans. John Moore
Trout, 3 vols. (Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark, 1909) 3:412ff,; A. H. McNeile, An Ztiroduction
to the .!Vuaj ofthe New ~dament, revised by C. S. C. Williams (Oxford: Clarendon, 1953),
p. 262; Isbon T. Beckwith, 2% Apaca~@e of John: Studies in Interpretation (Grand Rapids:
Baker, 1917 1967), p. 207; and Kiimmel, Introdudion, p. 469.
324 BEFORE JERUSALEM FELL
authors have been lodged against the interpretation of Polycarp's
statement cited above. It is not at all necessary that Polycarp's
statement be interpreted in the manner that Charles and Moffatt
do – an interpretation that supposes the church to have been founded
after Paul's death. Torrey is dogmatically opposed to the approach
of Charles and Moffatt: "Polycarp, moreover, is misquoted. He is
merely complimenting the Philippians church on its very early reputation.
He refers expressly to the beginning of Paul's Epistle (Phil. 1:5),
and adds: We, the church of Smyrna did not exist at the time when
you of Philippi were already praised by Paul, as he went about among
the earliest churches (referring to Phil. 4:5f ) ."22 Robinson is j ust as
certain as to the precariousness of the argument from Polycarp as
Morris, Charles, Moffatt, and others are of its usefulness:
One objection however can be dismissed, which is constantly repeated
from one writer to another. This is that Polycarp in his epistle to the
Philippians (11 .3) states that his own church at Smyrna had not been
founded till after the death of Paul – so that it could not therefore be
addressed as it is in Rev. 2.8-11 as early as the late 60s. But, as
Ligh&oot observed long ago, all that Polycarp actually says is that
"the Philippians were converted to the Gospel before the Smyrnaens – a
statement which entirely accords with the notices of the two churches
in the New Testament." It is astonishing that so much has continued
to be built on so little.23
Tb Evangelization of Smpa
As seems likely, "Smyrna must have been evangelized very soon
after Ephesus, see Acts 19:10, 26; that is, before the year 60. "24 The
Acts account emphasizes in conjunction with Paul's labors in Ephesus,
that "all who lived in Asia heard the word of the Lord Jesus," and
that "in almost all of Asia" Paul was making progress in the promotion
of the Gospel. If it were the case that the Smyrnaens were
evangelized not very long after the Ephesians — and what is unreasonable
in such a supposition, in light of Acts 19? — then there is
ample time for a situation as presupposed in John's letter to Smyrna
in Revelation to have transpired.
The extreme diiliculty of dating Paul's epistle to the Philippians
22. Charles C. Torrey, Tb Apo.a@e ofJohn (New Haven: Yale, 1958), p. 78.
23. Robinson, Redatin., pp. 229-230.
24. Torrey, Apoca~pxe, p. 78.
The Condition of th Seven Churches 325
should be understood as impacting on the question arising from
consideration of Polycarp's letter. Both Guthrie and Hendriksen find
it necessary to employ ten pages of intricate (and inconclusive!)
argument to arrive at a possible date for the writing of the canonical
Philippians epistle toward the end of Paul's first Roman imprisonment.
This imprisonment is mentioned in Acts, and occurred around
A.D. 63. Mtiller expends seven pages to arrive at the same conclusion.
25 J. B. Lightfoot and H. C. G. Moule held to an earlier date
toward the beginning of his captivity; this would yield a date of
around A.D. 61.26 Kummel and Robinson, as well as a number of
others, hold to an Ephesian provenance for the epistle, which would
place it as early as A.D. 53, but certainly no later than A.D. 58.27
Guthrie even notes that "there is a much greatei- inclination to
attribute Philippians than the other Captivity Epistles to Ephesus"
among modern scholars.28 Scott deems the arguments supportive of
an Ephesian provenance to be "of peculiar force. "29
These dates for the writing of Paul's epistle to the Philippians
— particularly the two earlier possibilities — provide ample time
for the Philippians letter to have preceded even the founding of the
Smyrnaean church. This is particularly significant if it is argued that
the Philippians letter itself must precede the founding of the church
of Smyrna, and not just the founding of the Philippians church.
25. Jac J. Miiller, The E@tles of Paul to the Philippians and to Phdemon. New International
Commentary on the New Testament (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1955), pp. 21-28.
See also: Guthrie, Introduction, pp. 526-536 and William Hendriksen, Phdippians. New
Testament Commentary (Grand Rapids: Baker, 1962), pp. 21-31.
26. J. B. Lightfoot, St. Paul's E@tle to the Phili@arz.r (Grand Rapids: Baker, rep. 1953),
pp. 30tI H. C. G. Moule, Studie$ in Phdzppiamr (Grand Rapids: Kregel, 1893 1977), p.
19. In agreement also is Samuel A. Cardedge, A Con.rematiue Zntroductwn to lb New
Testament (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1938), pp. 111-112.
27. Kummel, Introduction, pp. 324-332; Robinson, Redating, p. 61; Leander E. Keck
"The Letter of Paul to the Philippians" in Charles M, Laymen, cd., The Ink-rpreterk
Orr.z-Volunu CommentaV on the Bible (Nashville: Ahingdon, 1971), p. 846; and Otto F. A.
Meinardus, St. Paul an E@esu.r and tk Cities of Galatia and Cyprw (New Rochelle, NY:
Caratzas Bros., 1979), pp. 79-86. See also G. S. Duncan, St. Pauli Ephaian Ministry (New
York: Scribners, 1930), pp. 100ff.; D. T. Rowlingson Anglican Theological Remew 32
(1950): 1-7. Duncan (Expo~itoy Tirrw 67:6 March 1956) cites the following as supportive
of the possibility of the Ephesian provenance of the letter: A. H. McNeile, Kirsopp Lake,
F. B. Clogg, F. F. Bruce, J. H. Michael, M. Dibelius, P. Bonnard, P. Benoit, P. Feine
and J. Behm, Albertz, and W. Michaelis.
28. Guthne, Introduction, p. 531.
29. Ernest Findlay Scott, 2% Literature oftlu New Testament. Records of Civilization 15
(New York: Columbia University Press, 1932), p. 189.
326 BEFORE JERUSALEM FELL
Furthermore, this allows more than enough time to meet the conditions
of the church at Smyrna evidenced in John's letter. After all,
how much time is necessary to demonstrate a zealous fiaith adorned
with good works? There really seems to be no necessity for presupposing
a late date for Revelation based on the letter to Smyrna and
Polycarp's letter to the Philippians.
The Spiritual Decline in
Ephesus, Sardis, and Laodicea
The most familiar of the evidences from the Seven Letters is that
derived from warnings of spiritual decline in at least three of the
churches: Ephesus, Sardis, and Laodicea. The relevant verses from
Revelation are:
But I have this against you, that you have left your first love. Remember
therefore from where you have fallen, and repent and do the deeds
you did at first (To Ephesus, Rev. 2:4, 5).
You have a name that you are alive, and you are dead. Wake up, and
strengthen the things that remain, which were about to die; for I have
not found your deeds completed in the sight of My God (To Sardis,
Rev. 3:1c-2).
I know your deeds, that you are neither cold nor hot; I would that
you were cold or hot. So because you are lukewarm, and neither hot
nor cold, I will spit you out of My mouth. Because you say, "I am
rich, and have become wealthy, and have need of nothing, " and you
do not know that you are wretched and miserable and poor and blind
and naked, I advise you to buy from Me gold refined by fire, that you
may become rich (To Laodicea, Rev. 3:15-18a).
The utility of this evidence for the affirmation of a late date for
Revelation is expressed by Morris: "All the churches in chapters ii
and iii appear to have had a period of history. Especially is this the
case with those of whom things could be said like 'thou hast left thy
first love' (ii. 4) ."3° Swete comments in the same vein: "The condition
of the Asian Churches, as it is described in cc. ii., iii., is that of a period
considerably later than the death of Nero. Their inner life has undergone
many changes since St Paul's ministry at Ephesus, and even
since the writing of the Epistles to the Ephesians and Colossians and
30. Morris, Reuelatwn, p. 37,
Th Condition of the Seven Churches 327
the two Epistles to Timothy. Deterioration has set in at Ephesus, and
at Sardis and Laodicea faith is dying or dead."3  Morns, Swete, and
others argue that the supposed magnitude of the spiritual decline
manifested in the churches, evidenced in John's admonitions, demands
a period of time more readily available if John wrote during
Domitian's reign, than if he wrote during Nero's.32 It would seem a
reasonable expectation that the early fervency of a new-found faith
would wane only after the passing of various perils over an extended
period of time.
Despite all the seemingly credible assertions advanced toward
the establishment of the above argument, however, at least two
important counter considerations militate against any confident acceptance
of them.
Time Required for Spiritual Declim
First, granting that there is "a marked deterioration"33 in the
churches, the whole question of the length of time necessary for such
a waning of faith lies at the heart of the situation. Though it is quite
reasonable to expect that a passage of time is best suited to a decline
of a newborn faith, surely the passage of time is not a sine qua non for
such. In fact, a classic illustration of a rapid decline is contained in
the New Testament itself.
In Galatians 5:7 Paul writes to the Galatians that initially "you
were running well." The very purpose of Paul's letter, however, is to
deal with the rapid decline of the apostolic faith among those in the
congregation: "I am amazed that you are so quickly deserting Him
who called you by the grace of Christ, for a different gospel; which is
really not another; only there are some who are disturbing you, and
want to distort the gospel of Christ" (Gal. 1:6-7). The inspired
apostle considers the congregation to be "deserting" Christ. And this
desertion of the faith was occurring "quickly."
Consider also Paul's concern over the multitude of troubles within
the church of Corinth, a church founded in A.D. 49 and to which he
wrote with heavy heart in A.D. 57. Indeed, Paul anticipated such
problems to be experienced among the churches virtually as soon as
31. Swete, Revelation, pp. c-ci.
"32. Morris, Raelation, p. 37; Mounce, Revelation, p. 3% Swete, Revelatimz, pp. c-ci;
Guthrie, Introduction, p. 954.
33. Guthrie, Zntroductzon, p. 954.
328 BEFORE JERUSALEM FELL
he left the scene (Acts 20:29~. Was not Timothy urged to remain at
Ephesus because of the entry of false doctrine within Paul's lifetime
(1 Tim. 1 :6)? Paul also experienced distressing defections from fidelity
to him as a servant of Christ within his ministry (2 Tim. 4). He
felt the particularly sharp pang caused by the desertion of Demas (2
Tim. 4: 10). Paul seems to be concerned with the labors of Archippus
at Laodicea (one of the churches in question) when he warns him to
"take heed to the ministry which you have received in the Lord, that
you may fulfill it" (Col. 4:16-17).34 As Lightfoot notes on this particular
matter:
Some signs of slackened zeal seem to have called forth this rebuke. It
may be an accidental coincidence, but it is at least worthy of notice,
that lukewarmness is the special sin denounced in the angel of the
Laodiceans, and that the necessity of greater earnestness is the burden
of the message to that Church. As with the people, so it is with the
priest. The community takes its colour from and communicates its
colour to its spiritual rulers. The "be zealous" of St John is the
counterpart to the "take heed" of St Paul.35
How much more would such a problem be aggravated by the political
circumstances generated from the initiation of the Neronic persecution
in A.D. 64!
Because of such examples as those found in Paul's writings,
Kummel makes no reference to the argument from the spiritual
condition of the churches. 36 Moffatt even suggests its avoidance
because of the slippery nature of the matter: "The religious development
of the churches is often held to presuppose a considerable length
of time, but this argument must be used with caution. Worldliness
and error and uncharitable feelings did not require decades to spring
up in the primitive churches of Asia Minor and elsewhere. No great
stress can be laid on this feature. "37 Guthrie, though he employs the
34. A few examples of commentators who see the statement regarding Archippus as
an admonition include: J. B. Light foot, St Paul's Eji.rtlss to th Colossians and to Philemon
(Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1879 1959), pp. 42-43; Trench, ComrnentaV, p. 200; William
Hendriksen, Colossians and Philemon, New Testament Commentary (Grand Rapids:
Baker, 1964), p. 19~ H. C. G. Moule, Stzuiiti in Colossiam and Phikmon (Grand Rapids:
Kregel, 1893 1977), p. 144.
35. Light foot, Colostiaru and Philamvt, pp. 42-43. Light foot's comparison of Paul's and
John's labors in Asia is most enlightening, pp. 41iI
36. Kummel, Introduction, p. 469.
37. Moffatt, Remdation, p. 318.
The Condition of the Seuen Churches 329
argument, states that the argument "could be disputed."38
The Problem with the Domitianic Vtiw
Second, it must be noted that except for the matter of time, the
Domitianic date is not necessarily any more conducive to the decline
than the Neronic. That is, late date advocates have John on the scene
with these seven churches for over twenty-five years, but still they
declined. It is not as if (on the late date view) the churches have been
left without apostolic oversight. Both the early and late date views
face the same "problem" in this regard.
There does not seem to be any compelling reason to reject the
early date of Revelation on the basis of the spiritual decline in certain
of' the Seven Churches.
Conclusion
Although there are other arguments that have been drawn from
the Seven Letters, those presented are the leading ones. A careful
consideration of the merits of each of the arguments, however, demonstrates
their inconclusive nature. Not one of the arguments considered
individually, nor all of them considered collectively, compel
acceptance of the Domitianic date of Revelation. This is made all the
more serious when their inconclusive nature is contrasted with the
wealth of other internal considerations for an early date, as rehearsed
heretofore in the present work.
The Seven Letters even have elements more suggestive of a
period of time prior to the destruction of the Temple. A major one
of these has been discussed previously: the presence of strong Jewish
elements in the churches. This feature bespeaks an early period of
Christian development prior to the cleavage between Jew and Christian,
which was enforced by the complex of events associated with
both the Neronic persecution and the Jewish War (Rev. 2:9; 3:9).39
38. Guthrie, Introduction, p. 955,
39. See Chap. 13 above. An interesting and reasonable conjecture regarding the
derivation of the name "Nlcolaitan" (Rev. 2:6, 15) has enjoyed wide curreney, and is
also subtly suggestive of the early date of Revelation in that it bespeaks an era prior to
the final separation of Christianity from Judaism. That is, that the name "Nicolaitan" is
intentionally derived from the Greek (v/K@ and JCY6V) - which means "conqueror of
people," and as such reflects the Hebrew term "Baalam" (from Y>3 and Dy ), which
means "destruction of the people." This indicates John is giving a Greek designation to
the Hebrew word, as he does elsewhere in Revelation (e.g., 9: 11; 16: 16; cf 12:9; 20:2).
330 BEFORE JERUSALEM FELL
Another important factor involves John's exhortation to the churches
in anticipation of the "judgment coming" of Christ (Rev. 2:5, 16; 3:3,
10). There are no events that could be expected soon in Domitian's
day that approached the magnitude and significance – both culturally
and theologically – of the Neronic persecution of Christianity,
the destruction of Judaism's temple, and the near demise of Rome
in the Civil Wars of A.D. 68-69.W The early date stands, despite the
presumed objections on the foregoing bases.
Just as John called Jerusalem "Sodom and Egypt" (Rev. 11:8), here he calls the Judaizers
"Nlcolaitans" (or "Baalamites"). As Stuart noted, "It was common among the early
Hebrew Christians, to give persons of Hebrew origin a Greek name corresponding in
sense with their Hebrew one," e.g., Peter and Dorcas (Moses Stuart, Comntay on th
Apoca~pse, 2 VOIS. Andove~ Allen, Merrill, and Wardwell, 1945 2:64). See:
Friedrich Dusterdieck, Critical and Exegetical Handbook to the Rsoslatwn of John, 3rd cd.,
trans. Henry E. Jacobs (New York: Funk and Wagnalls, 1886), pp. 134fT.
James M. Macdonald, Tht Lij and Writing, qfSt. John (London: Hodder & Stoughton,
1877), p. 155.
J. L. Ratton, 7ZZ Apoca~pse ofSt. John (London: R. & T. Washboume, 1912), p. 143tf.
Charles, Revelation 1:52-53.
Trench, Covmwntaty, p. 90.
Morris, Revelation, pp. 61-62.
Moffatt, Rsoslation, p. 352 (he adds to the list: Ewald, Hengstenberg, Schiirer, Jiilicher,
and Bousset).
40. See Chap. 9 above.
PART V
CONCLUSION
20
CONCLUDING REMARKS
In the field of New Testament Introduction there are a number
of thorny questions that confront the scholar. The great distance in
time and culture separating us from first century Christian and
imperial history has served to render the questions that would naturally
arise even more diflicult. Yet for a more precise understanding
of the whole meaning of Scripture, it is necessary for dedicated
Christian scholarship to attempt to resolve them. The more certain
we are regarding the circumstances of the human authors and the
original recipients of Scripture, the better will be our position to
discern the fullness of the meaning of Scripture itself.
The field of Biblical Introduction is, therefore, a worthy enterprise
for the conservative Christian scholar, who is committed to the
Lordship of Jesus Christ as He is revealed in God's holy Word. The
diligent labors of these scholars actually serve to bring the people of
God further along in their sanctification, if we truly believe that we
are sanctified by God's Word, which is truth ('John 17: 17; 2 Tim.
3:17; 1 Pet. 2:2).
One of the most debated of questions in the field of New Testament
Introduction is that which comprises the topic of this book:
What is the date of the composition of Revelation? The matter has
been debated since the rise of the modern principles of scientific
Introduction. And the passage of time has witnessed a frequent
shifting back and forth on the answer to the question. The most
widely held view among current Christian scholarship – whether
liberal or conservative – is that of a Domitianic date for the book
around A.D. 95. Unfortunately, there are numerous problems of
consequence that beset this view.
333
334 BEFORE JERUSALEM FELL
A Summation of the Early Date Argument
In attempting to demonstrate the proper dating of this most
influential book of our sacred canon, our investigation carefully considered
both the external and internal witness of Revelation. Although
much weight has long been credited the external evidence,
especially that associated with Irenaeus, we noted that such a procedure
is in danger of quieting the voice of God in deference to the voice
of man. That is, when engaged from the perspective of an unflinching
commitment to Scripture as the Word of God, it should be the
procedure of Biblical Introduction to allow the most weight to the
Scripture's se~-testimony regarding its own historical composition. In
deference to common practice, however, and in light of the nature of
the present work as largely concerned with a rebuttal to the current
late date position, we began with an inquiry into the external considerations
of tradition.
The External Witness
In the portion of this study dealing with the external evidence,
we gave extensive consideration to the statement of Irenaeus regarding
Revelation's date. There we noted that the commonly received
interpretation of Irenaeus is not without ambiguity. The all-important
question in the matter is: Did Irenaeus mean to say that Revelation
was seen by John in Domitian's rei~? Or did he mean that John,
who saw the Revelation, was seen in Domitian's reign? By the very
nature of the case, verbal inflection alone is incapable of resolving the
matter. More helpful are the contextual indicators available that
suggest Irenaeus meant the latter of the two options.
Even if this re-interpretive approach to Irenaeus fails, however,
we pointed out that Irenaeus was subject to error — even on matters
he claims to have heard fi-om first-hand sources (such as when he
asserted that Jesus lived to be almost fifty years old). It is time for
biblical scholars and Church historians to consider afresh Irenaeus's
statement regarding Revelation. Especially is this the case since so
much weight is granted to his witness, despite its ambiguity.
Additional inquiry into the other major late date witnesses from
tradition turned up some rather surprising facts: The alleged evidence
from both Clement of Alexandria and Origen – the two most
important witnesses after Irenaeus — actually requires a reading of
the name "Domitian" into their texts at crucial points. Otherwise,
Concluding Remarks 335
their statements would be wholly irrelevant to the question of Revelation's
date. Indeed, we showed that there is the strong probability
that they really intended to speak of Nero as the one who banished
John to Patmos. We hope that our research at least demonstrated the
need for a more hesitant employment of such witnesses. Furthermore,
as our research developed we noted that there were ample indications
from tradition beyond Irenaeus, Origen, and Clement of Alexandria
suggesting that John's banishment to Patmos and his writing of
Revelation were under Nero. We surveyed The Shepherd of Hermas,
Papias, the Muratonan Canon, Tertullian, Epiphanies, the Syrian
tradition, and Arethas. Some of these are not conclusive, to be sure,
but they are at least as suggestive and as significant as are Ongen
and Clement of Alexandria, who are so widely touted by late date
advocacy. Other references were as confident regarding Revelation's
composition under Nero as they were explicit of it. And such references
demand that we not view Irenaeus's witness as representative
of all early tradition.
The Internal Witness
On the whole, however, our position is that the matter requires
a consideration of the internal indicators for an assured resolution to
the matter. As we entered into a consideration of the self-witness or
internal evidence, we came upon a wealth of evidences supportive of
the later era of Nero's reign as that era of John and his original
audience. These internal indicators provide chronological, cultural,
historical, and psychological data, all converging on the tumultuous
mid-A.D. 60s. The multiple statements as to the imminent expectation
of radical upheaval in Revelation are more understandable in
the 60s than in the 90s. These expectations were of the persecution
of the Church, the destruction of the Temple and Israel, and of
upheaval at Rome – chaos unparalleled in the events of the A.D. 90s.
We set forth a variety of rather precise chronological indicators
derived from the kings list in Revelation 17, all pointing to Nero as
the reigning emperor. Revelation's composition during Nero's reign
was confirmed in a number of harmonious evidences: the existence
of the Temple at Jerusalem, textual clues identifying Nero as the
Beast, the primitive nature of Christianity, and the looming of the
Jewish War. All of these dove-tailed nicely, providing a solid framework
for a Neronic date for Revelation. Neither were these historical
336 BEFORE JERUSALEM FELL
indicators weakened in the least by the internal evidences arrayed
by late date advocates.
My confident conviction is that a solid case for a Neronic date
for Revelation can be set forth from the available evidences, both
internal and external. In fact, I would lean toward a date after the
outbreak of the Neronic persecution in late A.D. 64 and before the
declaration of the Jewish War in early A.D. 67. A date in either A.D.
65 or early A.D. 66 would seem most suitable. My hope is that the
debate will be renewed with vigor and care, for the matter is more
than a merely academic or intellectual exercise; it has ramifications
in the area of practical Christianity.
A Reminder of the Practical
Import of the Question
The resolution of the question of the dating of Revelation has
far-reaching practical implications for the average Christian. As noted
in our opening comments, fascination with Revelation is an extremely
widespread phenomenon in American Christianity. Almost certainly
this fascination will continue. The importance of Revelation for eschatological
inquiry lends it an especially influential role in the
development and implementation of a Christian worldview. Hence,
it is of grave ethical and cultural significance in that it impacts on the
Christian's view of history.
On the one hand, if Christianity's eschatological expectation is
that of an imminently portending and dismally precipitous decline
and extinction of Christian influence in our day, as much of current
Christian literature suggests, then our Christian endeavor will be
powerfully bent in one direction. And it must necessarily be turned
away jom the implementation of long-term Christian cultural progress
and dominion. If Revelation's judgments are yet to occur and
lie in our future, then we must expect and prepare for the worst.
On the other hand, if the expectation held by the Christian
community is of a sure hope for progress and victory, then the focus
of Christian enterprise will be of a constructive and fiture-oriented
nature. Our cultural endeavor will not be in despite of our eschatology,
but in light of it. In this regard, if Revelation's judgments lie in
the past and punctuate the close of the old order in preparation for
a divinely wrought novus ordo seclorwn in which God will be engaged
in "reconciling the world to Himself" (2 Cor. 5:19) and "drawing all
Concluding Remarks 337
men" to Christ ('John 12:31), then the Church can confidently seek
to bring "every thought captive to the obedience of Christ" (2 Cor.
10:5).
We also noted in the beginning of our inquiry that a serious
confusion as to the nature and message of Revelation is partly responsible
for the cultural defeatism and retreatist pietism so influential in
twentieth century Christianity. There we observed that one reason
for confusion as to the Church's future is due to a radical misunderstanding
of the date of the writing of Revelation. If Revelation is
inadvertently dated after the events it prophesies as future, the way
is opened to a radical misconstruing of its message. Indeed, not only
has the message been misread in such circumstances, but it has been
wholly inverted, placing in our future what really lies in our past.
Hence, the significance of the date of Revelation.
APPENDIX
A RESPONSE TO HOUSE AND ICE
After the manuscript for this book had been sent to the typesetter,
an interesting critical analysis of the early date view of Revelation
came to my attention. This ardysis is contained in a book by Dallas
Seminary professor H. Wayne House and Pastor Thomas D. Ice,
entitled Dominion Thology: Blessing or Curse? In this work, the authors
offer a neo-dispensationalist analysis and refutation of those Christians
who hold to the doctrinal complex of Calvinistic soteriology,
presuppositional apologetics, theonomic ethics, postmillennial eschatology,
and covenantal commitment. 1 As a theological system, this
doctrinal complex has come to be associated with the broader theological
movement known as "Dominion Theology"; as a theological
framework for Christian social theory, it is known as Christian Reconstruction.
Chapter 12 of House and Ice's work is entitled "'Rightly Dividing'
the Book of Revelation," and it is directly relevant to the present
work. In Chapter 12, the authors critique the @-eterist approach to the
book of Revelation, which understands most of Revelation's prophecies
as being fulfilled with the fall of Jerusalem in A.D. 70. This view
has been revived recently by some Reconstructionists, and is becoming
increasingly popular among others, even among many outside of
Reconstructionism. In the first half of Chapter 12, the authors critique
David Chilton's Day of Vengeance, focusing much of their attention
on his brief notes regarding Revelation's date.
1. H. Wayne House and Thomas D. Ice, Dominion Tbologv: Blessing or Curse?
(Portland, OR: Multnomah, 1988), p, 17. Probably we should speak of a capital "R
Rcconstructionism when we mean that system which employs these five points. Small
"r" reccmstructionism might be used to refer to those who desire a Christian reconstructed
society, whether or not they hold to these five points (perhaps Francis Schaefer
is a good example of a small "r" reccmstructionist).
339
340 BEFORE JERUSALEM FELL
Although virtually every point made by House and Ice regarding
Revelation's date already has been dealt with in the main body of
this work, a direct response to them may be of interest to the reader.
Having now come upon their book, Dr. Greg Bahnsen and I are
preparing a full, book-length response to it. However, here in just a
few pages, I will deal with the comments they make in their Chapter
12, particularly as they affect the date of Revelation, but also with
reference to a few related matters.
Preparatory Observations
One particularly frustrating aspect of the recent debate regarding
Reconstructionist views is the tendency of the opponents of Reconstructionism
to confuse issues. House and Ice's opening statement
in Chapter 12 illustrates this problem: "The validity of the Christian
Reconstruction agenda is vitally dependent upon the last book in the
Bible, the book of Revelation." By this they mean Revelation as
interpreted from "the preterist, postmillennial viewpoint."2 This simply
is not true, and for a number of reasons.
Preterism and Reconstwction.tim
First, in point of fact, it has only been in recent years of Reconstructionist
thought that serious and sustained attention has been focused
on the Book of Revelation. Chilton's commentary itself was not
published until 1987, with its forerunner, Paradise Restored, preceding
it by only two years. Earlier, in its "Symposium on the Millennium,"
The Journal of Christian Reconstmction did not even make reference to
preterism!3 If "the validity of the Christian Reconstruction agenda"
were "vitally dependent" upon the preterist approach to Revelation,
this doctrine would have been dealt with much earlier in the development
of the recent resurgence of Reconstructionist thought.
That Reconstructionists began to devote considerable time, money,
and effort to the book of Revelation well over a decade after the
preliminary outline of their position was in completed form indicates
that their perspective is not governed by preterism. But House and
Ice's perspective is surely governed by futurism, so they have targeted
this aspect of Reconstructionism as being primary to the Reconstruc-
2. House and Ice, Dommzon Theology, p. 249.
3. Gary North, cd., The Journal of Christian Reeon.rtmctton 111:2 (Winter, 1976-1977),
@sire.
A Res~ome to House and Ice 341
tionist system. They perhaps mean "primary to dispensationalism's
critique" of the Reconstructionist system.
Second, it is true that R. J. Rushdoony gave an introductory
survey of Revelation in his 1970 work entitled, Thy Kingdom Come:
Studies in Daniel and Revelation. But it needs to be noted that Rushdoony's
view is decidedly non-preterist. In his first footnote in the
Revelation study, he even discounts the nearness of the events of
Revelation in John's day, a position which is essential to the preteristic
approach. He does so by favorably quoting premillennialist (nondispensationalist)
Henry Alford.4 Properly speaking, Rushdoony's
interpretive approach to Revelation is the idealist view. Is Rushdoony
not a "Reconstructionist" ?5 Has he no "Reconstructionist agenda" ?G
House and Ice may regard the "Tyler" branch of the Reconstructionist
movement as the more representative branch, as distinguished
from Rushdoony's "Vallecito" branch, but surely to ignore Thy Kingdom
Come and its non-preterist perspective on the book of Revelation
is misleading.
Third, that which Reconstructionism actually depends upon in
eschatology is not a specifically preteristic approach to the book of
Revelation or Matthew 24. Rather it is a oictoriow eschatology in general
(i.e., postmillennialism), as House and Ice well know.7 And optimistic
eschatology is found throughout Scripture, irrespective of Revelation.
Actually, dispensationalists are the ones who tend to begin with the
last book of the Bible in the development of their eschatology. Reconstructionists
in particular and postmillennialists in general leave
Revelation as chronologically the last (or perhaps, nearly the last)
book of the Bible, interpreting it on the basis of a biblico-theological
understanding of Scripture from Genesis through the New Testament.
8
4. Rousas John Rushdoony, Thy Kingdom Come: Studzes m Daniel and Rewlation (Nutley,
NJ: Presbyterian and Reformed, 1970), p. 86 n. 1.
5. House and Ice, Dominion Theolo~, p. 45.
6. House and Ice mention him first as one of the three leaders of Reconstructionist
thought (Domimon ThologY, p. 17).
7. Ibid., p. 17. They specifically note that a 1987 meeting of 100 Reconstructionists
"produced a list of ten points of belief 'which all saw as the fundamentals of the Christian
Reconstruction Movement.' Point seven insisted on a postmillennial view of the kingdom
of God" (p. 301). Preterism is an interpretive approach to prophecy; eschatology is a
locus of systematic. The two are not interchangeable.
8. "To understand Reconstructionist views of the end, we must go back to the
beginning" (Ibid., p. 47).
342 BEFORE JERUSALEM FELL
Clearing Upa A4i3corzeption
It maybe that the following statement by House and Ice is poorly
phrased, but as it stands, it definitely leaves an erroneous impression
that needs correction:
The preterist, postmillennial viewpoint of the Christian Reconstruction
movement, as expounded by David Chilton in Th Days of tingeance,
stands or falls on whether or not the final book of the Bible was
written before A.D. 70. Fellow postmillennialist and pre-A.D. 70
preterist Kenneth L. Gentry notes this major weakness when he says,
"if it could be demonstrated that Revelation were written 25 years
after the Fall of Jerusalem, Chilton's entire labor would go up in
smoke. "g
When they state that the particular pretenstic approach of Chilton
(with which I agree) stands or falls on the early date of Revelation,
I concur. But when they add that I note "this major weakness,"
the impression that clearly remains is that I am suggesting that the
major weakness of this Preterist via of Revelation is that it has to depend
on an early date – as if I deemed the evidence for an early date as
being weak!l" Such was not the intention of my statement at all. I
was reviewing Chilton's book, and I merely pointed out that I believe
that a major weakness of his book – not the preterist view as such – is
that it does not deal in more depth with the dating question. However,
I did note that Chilton's book is subtitled: "An ~xposition of the
Book of Revelation." 11 It is an expository, not a critical, commentary.
The "major weakness" statement was regarding what Chilton left
out of his book (a thorough inquiry into the question of Revelation's
date), not preteristic postmillennialism or early date advocacy.
The Problem of Partial Citation
In defense of Chilton, it should be noted that an imprecise
statement by House and Ice leaves the impression that Chilton has
created de novo a faulty argument for the early date of Revelation.
Their statement reads:
9. Ibid., p. 249, citing Kenneth L. Gentry, Jr., "The Days of Vengeance: A Review
Article," Ths Counsel of Chalcedon (June 1987): 11.
10. I clearly state my convictions regarding the early date in the article they cite:
"Days of Vengeance," p. 11.
11. Ibid., p. 11.
A Response to Howe and Ice 343
What are the "supetilcially argued" points Chilton attempts to make
for his position? . . . First, "St. John's intimate acquaintance with
the minute details of Temple worship suggests that the Book of
Revelation and the Fourth Gospel must have been written before the
Temple services had actually ceased." This argument proves nothing
as to whether or not the temple was standing at the time of writing.
. . .12
Anyone reading their statement, which includes a quotation from
Chilton, would surmise that Chilton is guilty of creating strained
evidence without historical precedent or warrant. However, Chilton's
point was preceded by a lengthy supporting quotation from the
highly respected nineteenth-century Jewish-Christian scholar, Alfred
Edersheim. In fact, more than half of the statement quoted by House
and Ice as Chilton's was actually a quotation from Edersheim. 13
Since House and Ice are prone to do some name-dropping in support
of their arguments, 14 they should allow Chilton the privilege by
accurately representing his argument and its sources.
But now to my major concern.
The Matter of Revelation's Date
"The" Voice of Traditwn?
As is common among late date advocates, House and Ice speak
as if there were a unified Church tradition regarding the date of
Revelation: "Chilton questions the voice of church tradition concerning
the date of Revelation, since it strongly negates his early date
viewpoint."15 The book by House and Ice is aimed at a general
audience; the effect on the general audience doubtless will be: "Ancient
Christianity harmoniously held that Revelation was written
later than A.D. 70." Let us cite Chilton's actual statement and notice
the different impression left:
(St Irenaeus, incidentally, is the on~ source for this late dating of
Revelation; all other "sources" are simply quoting from him. It is thus
rather disingenuous for commentators to claim, as Swete does, that
12. House and Ice, Dominion Ttwologv, p. 250.
13. David Chilton, The Days of V%ngeame (Ft. Worth, TX: Dominion Press, 1987), p.
3, and Alfred Edersheim, Tlu Tm,ble: Its Minis&y and Semicss as TbJy W~e at th Tvm @"
Chrrit (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1980), p. 141.
14. House and Ice, Dominion T/uology, pp. 252ff.
15. Ibid., p. 251.
344 BEFORE JERUSALEM FELL
"Early Christian tradition is almost unanimous in assigning the Apocalypse
to the last years of Domitian.") Certainly, there are other early
writers whose statements indicate that St. John wrote the Revelation
much earlier, under Nero's persecution. 16
Chilton was careful to note that not all ancient sources supported a
late date for Revelation. 17 Thus, he is not set against "t/u voice of
church tradition. " In fact, he specifically mentions "there are other
early writers whose statements indicate" that Revelation was written
under Nero.
I have noted in great detail in the text of this book that there are
a number of significant early date voices that may be heard from the
stream of ancient tradition. Among them I could list Clement of
Alexandria (despite House and Icels – and others), the Muratorian
Canon, Tertullian, Epiphanies, the Syriac versions of Revelation,
and Arethas, and probably Papias and The Shepherd of Herrnas. 19
There simply is no "voice singular of church tradition concerning
the date of Revelation. " It is time for late date advocates to admit
this. Neither is there an "overwhelming voice of the early church" in
this regard.20 Nor may it be stated that Clement of Alexandria,
Ongen, Victorious, and Eusebius "had no witnesses to the contrary."
21 Nor should it be said that "if there were some validity to the
early date, some trace of this competing tradition should have surfaced.
However, it has not!"22 Nor may we believe that there is "clear
and historically accepted witness of the early church to a Domitian
date."2 3 To quote House and Ice against themselves: their critique
of the early Church tradition seems to be "speculative"24 and a
"debater's technique."25
After carefully reading House and Ice, I seriously suspect that
neither of them has read the original references in context in Clement
16. Chilton, Days of V2ngeame, pp. 3-4.
17. And his f~tnote pointed the interested reader to exhaustive research in works
by Moses Stuart and James M. Macdonald.
18. House and Ice, Dominion Theolo~, p. 253.
19. See chapter 6 above.
20. House and Ice, Dominion T/zolo.., p. 253.
21. Ibid.
22. Ibrd., p. 254.
23. Ibid, p. 258.
24. Ibid., p. 253.
25. Ibid., p. 252.
A Response to Home and Ice 345
of Alexandria and Ongen, which they put forth as two of four
non-Irenaean "witnesses" for a late date.2G If they had checked the
original sources, they would surely have been less confident in asserting
these fathers are witnesses to the late date, for neithr Clement nor
Origen mentions Domitian at all!27 Apparently for historical evidence,
they adopt the common jargon: "It goes without saying"! Certainly
neither Clement nor Origen said anything about John being banished
by Domitian.
1 hope the careful reader of their book will notice that House and
Ice even admit that such astute historian-exegetes as F. J. A. Hort
and Philip Schaff hold the early date, despite Irenaeus's alleged
evidence.28 There are a host of others who do, as well.29
Irenaezu
As I continue on in their critique, it becomes obvious that they
are confident in their employment of Irenaeus against early date
advocacy. Unfortunately, they do not appear to be as prepared to
deal with his evidence as is requisite for their task. This inadequacy
becomes all too obvious from the following evidences.
First, after citing Irenaeus's passage from Against Heresies, they
employ a "debater's technique" (to borrow their own phrase again)
by attempting to promote their point as "clear." They write: "How
does Chilton deal with such a clear statement?"3° As I have noted
previously, Irenaeus's translators have commented on the dif'iiculty
of translating and interpreting him.31 In light of such a problem as
mentioned by several noted historians and linguists, how could Irenaeus's
statement be deemed "clear"?
Second, after citing a particular English translation of Irenaeus,
they comment: "Chilton questions whether Irenaeus's 'that was
seen' refers to 'the apocalyptic vision' or to John himself. Since the
impersonal pronoun 'that' is used we can assume that it refers to
26. Ibid., p. 253.
27. See pp. 68tI, supra.
28. House and Ice, Dominion Ttwology, p. 252.
29. The reader should note my extensive list of early date advocates given above on
pages 30-38.
30. House and Ice, Dominwn Theology, p. 251.
31. See pp. 47ff.
346 BEFORE JERUSALEM FELL
John's 'apocalyptic vision.'''" This is a serious blunder. It is obvious
that they are not even aware that in the original Greek of Against
Heresies, there is no "impersonal pronoun 'that'" !33 The "that"
which forms the basis of their argument is an English translator's
interpolation! To argue as they have is equivalent to stating that an
italicized word in the Bible _indicates God emphasized the point,
when actually it is the translator's cue to the reader that the English
has been supplied despite the lack of any term in the original language.
This is a debater's technique – one which loses points when
the debater's opponent has read the primary source's citation in its
original language.
Third, they write: "since it is called 'the apocalyptic vision,'
which is something John saw, then 'was seen' refers to what John
saw — 'the apocalyptic vision' — rather than someone having seen
John."34 Again, they do not seem to have done their homework
adequately. In the fkst place, the original Greek does not have the
word "vision" (which they feel suggests the verb of seeing). The word
in the original is d170K~ uqrIc ("revelation" ). "Apocalyptic vision" is
an amplified translation by the English translator! In the second
place, as I have shown, the context also makes reference to John.
having been seen alive, even using the same Greek word for "saw."35
In fact, this seems to be Irenaeus's main point!
Fourth, though properly citing Hort as an early date advocate
who allows Irenaeus's statement to refer to the book of Revelation
and not to its author, House and Ice leave no indication that Hort
did so with resemations. Hort found the grammatical structure of
Irenaeus's sentence difficult to account for on the common translation,
as I have noted.36 The readers of House and Ice's book would
not be aware of Hort's reservation, thus their argument becomes an
effective "debater's technique" by invoking Hort's name.
Finally, having dealt with Chilton's brief objection to Irenaeus,
they write: "Chilton's approach is nothing more than a debater's
technique. When you do not have strong reasons against something
32. House and Ice, Dominion Ttuology, p. 251.
33. See above, pp. 46-59, for the Greek text and comments on it.
34. House and Ice, Dominion Thologv, p. 252.
35. See above, pp. 52-54.
36. See above, p. 50.
A Response to Howe and Ice 347
then you try to cast doubt upon the reliability of the source. "37 Not
only does this well characterize what House and Ice do to Chilton,
but again the reader is left with the false impression that Chilton is
the only person to have ever questioned the interpretation of Irenaeus.
I have shown that such is simply not the case.38
The authors then attempt to support the reliability of Irenaeus
against Chilton. They note that Irenaeus was "one of the most
reliable of all the early church fathers."39 Their proof of this assertion
(whether true or not) is almost incredible. They quote from poptheologian
Hal Lindsey, as if he were a noteworthy scholar of Church
history!
But what if their argumentative methodology were consistently
applied? Could their statement that Irenaeus is "one of the most
reliable" fathers be used to defend Irenaeus's statement that Jesus
lived to be almost fifty years old@ After all, Hal Lindsey does say
that Irenaeus is "careful and accurate with facts"!
Don-titian's Persecution
In contradiction to Chilton's references to the Neronic Persecution
backdrop for Revelation, House and Ice suggest that "a stronger
case can be made for more severe persecution under Domitian than
Chilton admits" and "there is no hard evidence of persecution under
Nero in Asia during any part of his reign."41
As I have already shown,42 there is widespread and vigorous
debate as to whether or not Domitian persecuted Christians at all!
And as far as "hard evidence" goes there is absolute~ no contemporary
or secular evidence for a Domitianic persecution, whereas Roman
historians Tacitus and Suetonius supply us with such for a Neronic
persecution.
External Evidence?
In a strange misnomer, House and Ice label the evidence drawn
37. House and Ice, Dominwn Ttuology, p. 252.
38. See above, pp. 47K
39. House and Ice, Dominion TlwologY, p. 253.
40. See above, pp. 63-64.
41. House and Ice, Dominion T/Molo~, p. 255.
42. See above, chapter 17.
348 BEFORE JERUSALEM FELL
from the Seven Letters and from Revelation's allusions to emperor
worship as "external evidence" !43 New Testament scholars consider
external evidence to be drawn from tradition, not from within the
pages of the work in question.~ Their error points out a degree of
carelessness in their method.
In addition, all the "external" arguments they present for a late
date in that section have been answered in great detail above. The
arguments from the existence of the church at Smyrna,45 the prevalence
of emperor worship,% the nature of the Neronic persecution,47
the earthquake in Laodicea,w and spiritual decline in the Seven
Churches49 simply do not demand a Domitianic date. Furthermore,
I stand in wonder at the blatant schizophrenia of their argument!
House and Ice dogmatically argue that- Revelation is to be interpreted
from a Jidurist viewpoint, that is, they aver that its prophecy
in Revelation 4:1-22:5 regards distantly future events .50 But then they
"prove" a late date by pointing to emperor worship in the text of
Revelation and apply it to Domitian. The references to emperor
worship, which are used by late date advocates, are found in Revelation
13 primarily! Which is it: Are those references reflecting a
Domitianic emperor worship (as used in the late date argument)? .
Or are they referring to the centuries distant Great Tribulation (as
used in the futurist approach to Revelation)?
Propheq and Jerusalem
Statements as fallacious as they are bold are made by House and
Ice regarding the destruction of Jerusalem in prophecy. In response
to Chilton's comment that "Revelation is primarily a prophecy of the
destruction ofJerusalem by the Remans," House and Ice ask:5
If this were such a clear "fact," then why did none of the early church
43. House and Ice, Dominion TholQgy, p. 256.
44. E.g., Guthrie, New Testament Introduction, p. 95% Kummel, Inhoduction to the New
Testament, pp. 466-467; Stonehouse, Origins, p. 1.
45. House and Ice, Dominion TheologY, p. 256. See above, pp. 322-326.
46. Ibid., p. 256. See above, chapter 16.
47. Ibid., p. 257. See above, chapter 17.
48. Ibid., See above, pp. 19-322.
49. Ibid., See above, pp. 326-329.
50. House and Ice, Dominion T/wology, pp. 260fi 278.
51. Though writing under the heading of "Internal Evidence," here they slip into the
external evidence.
A Response to House and Ice 349
writings reflect Chilton's views in their interpretation of Revelation?
If the A.D. 70 destruction of Jerusalem fulfilled so much of biblical
prophecy, then why is this not reflected in the views of the early
church? Why is it that all of the early fathers, when referring to
Revelation and Matthew 24, see these as future events?52
And since they spend a good deal of space on the influence of Daniel
9:25ff on Matthew 24:15, surely they would include the handling of
Daniel 9 in this statement.53 After all, they attempt to distinguish
Luke 21:20-24 from Matthew 24:15 on this very basis: "In contrast,
the Matthew 24:15 passage has a context of its own which differs
from the Luke account. Matthew says, 'when you see the abomination
of desolation which was spoken of through Daniel the prophet
(not Luke), standing in the holy place . . .' Comparison of the
description in Matthew and Daniel with the passage in Luke yields
differences, which Prove that they are two separate euerzts."54 They even
state: "One major reason Matthew 24 could not have been fulfilled
in A.D. 70 is that 'the abomination of desolation' (24:15) was not
accomplished in the destruction of Jerusalem."55 Thus, on their own
analysis Daniel 9 should be no more preteristic than Matthew 24 and
should be no more heard of being interpreted preteristically in early
Christianity than it is.
It is here I begin to suspect that they have done ~e~ little reading
in patristics, though they write with confidence as if they had. This
is a part of the problem that frustrates the early date advocate: among
popular writers urging the late date, there is frequent bold assertion
without adequate knowledge. However, let us note a few samples
that falsi~ such a claim.
As I have noted, there are references to the destruction ofJerusalem
in the context of Revelation studies in the ancient Church. I
pointed out that in his day, Andreas of Cappadocia had to respond
to comments made earlier by several Christian writers who applied
various of the prophecies of Revelation to the destruction of Jerusalem.
5G Also Arethas specifically interprets various passages in Revelation
in terms of the destruction ofJerusalem.57
52. House and Ice, Dominion TbologY, p. 258 (emphasis mine).
53. Ibid., pp. 259, 287-290.
54. Ibid., p. 290 (emphasis mine).
55. Ibid., p. 287.
56. See above, pp. 106-107.
57. See above, pp. 107-108.
350 BEFORE JERUSALEM FELL
In his Ecclesiastical HistoU, Book 3, Chapters 5-8, Eusebius details
the woes that befell Jerusalem in A.D. 70, mostly by reference to
Josephus. In Chapter 7 he writes that "it is * to add to these
accounts i.e., Josephus's the true prediction of our Saviour in which
he foretold these very events."m He then cites Matthew 24:19-21 as
his leading reference and later cites Luke 21:20, 23, 24! He even
states: "If any one compares the words of our Saviour with the other
accounts of the historian ~osephus concerning the whole war, how
can one fail to wonder, and to admit that the foreknowledge and the
prophecy of our Saviour were truly divine and marvelously strange."59
Origen, in his commentary on Matthew, spoke of Israel's divorce
by God and made reference to Luke 21 (the parallel of Matthew 24):
"And a sign that she Israel has received the bill of divorcement is
this, that Jerusalem was destroyed along with what they called the
sanctuary of the things in it which were believed to be holy, and with
the altar of burnt offerings, and all the worship associated with
it . . . . And thousands of things commanded are a sign of the bill
of divorcement. . . . Wherefore, when He was avenged, Jerusalem
was compassed with armies, and its desolation was near. "m Also:
But let this Jew of Celsus, who does not believe that He fore knew all
that happened to Him, consider how, while Jerusalem was still standing
and the whole Jewish worship celebrated in it, Jesus foretold what
would befall it from the hand of the Remans. For they will not
maintain that the acquaintances and pupils of Jesus Himself handed
down His teaching contained in the Gospels without committing it to
writing, and left His disciples without the memoirs ofJesus contained
in their works. Now in these it is recorded, that "when ye shall see
Jerusalem compassed about with armies, then shall ye know that the
desolation thereof is nigh." But at that time there were no armies
around Jerusalem, encompassing and enclosing and besieging it; for
the siege began in the reign of Nero, and lasted till the government of
Vespasian, whose son Titus destroyed Jerusalem, on account, as
Josephus says, ofJames the Just, the brother ofJesus who was called
Christ, but in reality, as the truth makes clear, on account of Jesus
58. Eusebius, Ecclesiastical Histoty, 3:7:1-2.
59. Ibid., 3:7:7.
60. Origen, Matthew, 19. The reference to Jerusalem encompassed by armies is a clear
allusion to Luke 21:20, which is a parallel passage to Matt. 24:15, despite House and Ice.
A Response to House and Ice
Christ the Son of GodS1
351
Another ancient document that makes reference to the destruction
of the temple based on Matthew 24:2-34 is the Clernentine Homilies.
62 There we read:
But our Master did not prophesy after this fashion; but, as I have
already said, being a prophet by an inborn and every-flowing Spirit,
and knowing all things at all times, He confidently set forth, plainly
as I said before, sufferings, places, appointed times, manners, limits.
Accordingly, therdore, prophesying concerning the temple, He said:
"See ye these buildings? Verily I say to you, There shall not be left
here one stone upon another which shall not be taken away Matt.
24:3; and this generation shall not pass until the destruction begin
Matt. 24:34. . . ." And in like manner He spoke in plain words the
things that were straightway to happen, which we can now see with
our eyes, in order that the accomplishment might be among those to
whom the word was spoken.63
In Clement of Alexandria's Miscellanies, we read his discussion of
the Daniel 9:24-27 passage:
And thus Christ became King of the Jews, reigning in Jerusalem in
the fulfillment of the seven weeks. And in the sixty and two weeks the
whole of Judaea was quiet, and without wars. And Christ our Lord,
"the Holy of Holies," having come and fulfilled the vision and the
prophecy, was anointed in His flesh by the Holy Spirit of His Father.
In those "sixty and two weeks," as the prophet said, and "in the one
week," was He Lord. The half of the week Nero held sway, and in the
holy city Jerusalem placed the abomination; and in the half of the
week he was taken away, and Otho, and Galba, and Vitellius. And
Vespasian rose to the supreme power, and destroyed Jerusalem, and
desolated the holy place.
61. Origen, Against Gel-w, 2:13 (See Roberts and Donaldson, Ante-Ns'cme Fath.ws,
4437). Origen further discusses the destruction of Jerusalem as a final act removing the
Jews forever from their former favor (422; See Roberts and Donaldson, Ante-Ni.ene
Fathers, 4506).
62. Though not written by a noted Church father, it is a late second century work
that touches on the matter before us. House and Ice boldly state that preterism is found
in "none of the early church writings" (p. 258). Yet, here is a work that shows early
consideration of the matter, apparently picking up on views current in that day.
63. C%rm-ntine Homilia, 3:15. See Roberts and Donaldson, Ante-Nicme Fathm, 8:241.
352 BEFORE JERUSALEM FELL
As a matter of fact, several of the early fathers held a distinctly
preteristic interpretation of Daniel 9!W
In Cyprian we have clear reference to Matthew 24 as referring
to Jerusalem's A.D. 70 fall.G5 In the entirety of Treatise 12 he is
dealing with testimonies against the Jews, including Christ's prophecies.
Surely it may not be stated, as do House and Ice: "Why is it that
all of the early fathers, when referring to Revelation and Matthew
24, see these as future events?"GG
Nero and Revelation
House and Ice write: "If Chilton could show that Nero is the ruler
spoken of in Revelation, then he would have a major victory for his
view. But he cannot. "67 As I have shown in great detail many lines
of evidence converge upon Nero'8: (1) His place as the sixth among
the Roman emperors, (2) his being followed by a seventh, brief
reigning emperor (Galba), (3) his name's numerical value of 666, (4)
his living while the temple still stood, (5) the prominence of his
persecution in first century Christianity, and more. There is an old
adage: If the shoe fits, wear it. Nero's footprints are all over Revelation.
64. For a discussion of early interpretive approaches to Daniel 9, see Louis E.
Knowlesj "The Interpretation of the Seventy Weeks of Daniel in the Early Fathers,"
Westmimter Theologtial JouraQl 7:2 (May, 1945), 137-138. Actual references include: Ttw
Epistle of Barnabas 16:6; Tertullian, AgawA t/u Jews 8 (despite being a Montanist and
therefore premillennial!); Ongen, Matthew 24:15; Julius Africanus, Chronography (relevant
portions preserved in Eusebius, Preparation fw tb Gospel 10:10 and Demonstratwm of the
Gospel 8); Eusebius (Dermmutratiom 8); and Augustine in his 199th epistle.
65. Cypnan, Treatises, 12:1:6, 15. See especially Roberts and Donaldson, Ante-Nicene
Fathm, 5:507-511.
66. House and Ice, Dominion T/uolo~, p. 258 (emphasis mine). In the final analysis,
however, one must wonder how their argument carries weight in light of the Plymouth
Brethren roots of dispensatfonalism. After all, it is the chief proponent of dispensationalism,
Charles C. Ryrie, who defends dispensationalism fmm "the charge of recency" by
labeling such a charge a "straw man" and arguing from history as a "fallacy." In addition
he writes: "The fact that something was taught in the first century does not make it right
(unless taught in the canonical Scriptures), and the fact that something was not taught
until the nineteenth century does not make it wrong . . ." (Dirpensationah.mz Today
Chicago: Moody, 1965, p. 66).
67. Ibid., p. 2.59.
68. See above, chapters 10, 12, 14, 16, 17, and 18.
A Response to House and Ice 353
Conclusion
Space fails our responding to other aspects of the argument by
House and Ice. Perhaps I will develop them at more length in the
book-length response to their Dominion Theolo~. Yet I believe that if
anyone were to consider the few problems associated with their
Chapter 12, which I have noted above, he would quickly see that as
presented, 'g the argument by House and Ice is fraught with misconception
and error. Though they disparage employing the "debater's
technique" of casting "doubt upon the reliability of the source," I
must confess that as far as the "Reconstruction debate" goes, I
seriously question the reliability of House and Ice.
69. House and Ice note that theirs is but the first of several book-length responses to
Reconstructionism in the works (Dominion Tholo,g, p. 9). Perhaps they were a little too
hasty jn attempting to beat the others to the punch. It may be that the other responses
will be a little more careful in their presentations and will require analysis from a different
perspective.
SELECT BIBLIOGRAPHY I: MODERN WRITINGS
Books and Articles on Revelation
Adams, Jay E. The Time Is at Hand. Phillipsburg, NJ: Presbyterian
and Reformed, 1966.
Bahnsen, Greg L. "The Book of Revelation: Setting." Unpublished
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Barclay, William. The Revelation ofJohn. 2 vols. The Daily Study Bible.
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Barnes, Albert. Barnes' Notes on tlw New Testament. 1 vol. ed. Grand
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Beasley-Murray, G. R. Th Book of Revelation. New Century Bible.
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. "Revelation." In Th New Bible Commmta~, edited
by Francis Davidson. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1954.
Beasley-Murray, G. R., Herschell Hobbs, and Frank Robbins. Revelation:
Three Viewpoints. Nashville: Broadman, 1977.
Beckwith, Isbon T. The APoca~@e ofJohn: Studies in Introductwn. Grand
Rapids: Baker, (1917) 1967.
Beeson, Ulrich R. Th Revelation. Birmingham, AL: by the author,
1956.
Bell, Jr., Albert A. "The Date of John's Apocalpyse. The Evidence
of Some Roman Historians Reconsidered." New Testament Studies
10 (1977-78):93-102.
Blaney, Harvey J. S. Revelation. In The Wesleyan Bible Commentary,
vol. 6. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1966.
Boer, Harry E. The Book of Revelation. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1979.
Burch, Vacher. Anthropolo~ and the Apoca@e. London: Macmillan,
1939.
Caird, G. B. A Commenta~ on the Revelation of St. John the Divirw. New
York: Harper & Row, 1966.
Carpenter, W. Boyd. l%e Revelation of St. John. In vol. 8 of Ellicott %
355
356 BEFORE JERUSALEM FELL
Commenta~ on the Whole Bible, edited by Charles John Ellicott.
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Case, Shirley Jackson. Th Revelation ofJohn: A Historical Interpretation.
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Charles, R. H. 1%.e Revelation of St. John. 2 vols. The International
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. Studies in th A~oca~@. Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark,
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Chilton, David. The Days of Emgeance: An Exposition of the Book $
Revelation. Ft. Worth, TX: Dominion Press, 1987.
Clarke, Adam. Clarke's Commerztaty. Nashville: Abingdon, (c. 1823)
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Desprez, P. S. The Apoca@e Ful)lled. 2nd ed. London: Longman,
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Diisterdieck, Friednch. Critical and Exegetical Handbook to the Revelation
of John. 3rd ed. Translated by Henry E. Jacobs. New York: Funk
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Farrer, Austin. A Rebirth of Images. Boston: Beacon, 1949.
. T/u Revelation of St. John the Divine. Oxford: Clarendon,
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Fausset, A. R. "Corinthians to Revelation." In vol. 2 of Jamieson,
Robert, A. R. Fausset, and David Brown, A Commenta~, Critical
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Feuillet, Andre. T/w APoca@re. Translated by Thomas E. Crane.
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Ford, J. Massyngberde. Revelation. The Anchor Bible. Garden City:
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Franzmann, Martin H. The Revelation to John. St. Louis: Concordia,
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Gebhardt, Hermann. Tb Doctrine of the Apoca@pse. Clarke's Foreign
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Giet, Stansius. L'APoca~@e et l'Historic: 'Etude hi.storique sur l'APoca@e
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Gilmour, S. MacLean. T/w Revelation to John. In vol. 12 of T7.u Interpreter's
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Gwyn, J. Th APoca@e of St. John in a $v-iac Version Hitherto Unknown.
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Select Bibliography I: Modern Writings 357
Hendriksen, William. More Than Conquerors. Grand Rapids: Baker,
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Hermann, Gebhardt. Tk Doctrine of the Apoca@se. Translated by
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Hemer, C. J. A Study of thz Letters to the Seuen Churches of Asia with Special
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Hillers, D. R. "Revelation 13:18 and A Scroll from Murabba'at."
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Hoeksema, Herman. Behold, He Cometh! An Exposition of the Book of
Revelation. Grand Rapids: Reformed Free Publishing, 1969.
Hort, F. J. A. The APoca@se of St. John: Z – 111. London: Macmillan,
1908.
Kepler, Thomas S. The Book of Revelation: A Commentap for Laymen.
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Kiddie, Martin. The Revelation of St. John. New York: Harper, 1940.
Ladd, George Eldon. A Commenta~ on th Revelation of John. Grand
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Lange, John Peter. Revelation. In Commenta~ on th Ho~ Scripture:
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Laymen, Charles M., ed. The Interpreter's One-Volume CommentaV on the
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Lee, Francis Nigel. "Revelation and Jerusalem." Brisbane, Australia:
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Milligan, William. Discussions on t/w Apoca@pse. London: Macmillan,
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Mills, Jessie E. Survy of the Book of Revelation. Bonifay, FL: by the
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Moffatt, James. The Revelation of St. John th Divine. In vol. 5 of The
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Morris, Leon. T/w Revelation of St. John. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans,
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Mounce, Robert H. The Book of Revelation. New International Commentary
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Newman, B. "The Fallacy of the Domitian Hypothesis. Critique of
the Irenaeus Source as a Witness for the Contemporary-Historical
358 BEFORE JERUSALEM FELL
Approach to the Interpretation of the Apocalypse." New Testament
Studies 10 (1962-63):133-139.
Newman, Jr., Barclay M. Rediscovering th Book of Revelation. Valley
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Peake, Arthur S. The Revelation of John. London: Joseph Johnson,
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Ramsay, William M. The Lztters to the Seven Churchzs. Grand Rapids:
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Randall, John. Th Book of Revelation: What Does It Real~ Say? Locust
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Randell, T. "Revelation." In vol. 22 of Th Pulpit Commentmy, edited
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Ratton, J. L. The APoca@pse of St. John. London: R. & T. Washbourne,
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Richardson, Donald W. The Rmelation ofJesm Christ. Richmond: John
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Roberts, J. W. Tb Revelation to John. Austin, TX: Sweet Publishing,
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Scott, Ernest Findlay. The Book of Revelation. 4th ed. New York:
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Seiss, Joseph A. The Apoca@se. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1957.
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Select Bibliography I: Modern Writings 359
Torrance, Thomas F. Th Apoca@pse Today. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans,
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Torrey, Charles Cutler. + 7?ze A~oca@@e of John. New Haven: Yale,
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Wallace, Jr., Foy E. The Book of Revelation. Nashville: By the Author,
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Other Articles Cited
Alexander, J. A. "The End Is Not Yet." The Banner of Troth 88
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Angus, S. "Nero." International Standard Bible EwycloPaedia. Vol. 3.
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Angus, S. "Roman Empire." International Standard Bible Emyclopaedia.
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Board, Stephen. "The Great Cosmic Countdown: Hal Lindsey on the
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Chase, S. H. "The Date of the Apocalypse." Journal of Theological
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360 BEFORE JERUSALEM FELL
Doubleday, 1983.
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Bigg, Charles. T& Origins of C/wistiarzi~. Edited by T. B. Strong.
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Green, Samuel G. A Handbook of Church Hi.sto~ ji-om tb Apostolic Era
to the Dawn of the Reformation. London: Religious Tract Society,
1904.
Greenlee, J. Harold. Introduction to New Testament Textual Criticism.
Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1964.
Select Bibliography Z: Modern Wi-iting.s 365
Gregory, George. Dr. GregoV's HistoT of the Christian Church ji-orn the
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1984.
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Twayne, n.d.
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IL: Inter-Varsity Press, 1970.
Gwatkin, Henry Melville. Ear~ Church HtitoT to A.D. 313. Vol. 1.
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Hammond, N. G. L., and H. H. Scullard. Oxford Clas.szkal DictionaT.
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Hardy, E. G. Chri.stiani& and tk Roman Government. New York: Burt
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Harnack, Adolf The Mission and Expam"on of Christiani~ in th First
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Harris, R. Laird. Inspiration and Canoni.ci~ of the Bible. Grand Rapids:
Zondervan, 1969.
Harrison, R. K. Introduction to the Old Testament. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans,
1969.
Hastings, James, ed. DictionaV of the Bible. 5 vols. New York: Scribners,
1898-1904.
Hayes, D. A. John and His Wtiting. New York: Methodist Book
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Henderson, B. W. Five Roman Emperors. Cambridge: University Press,
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. The Lzfe and Prim"pate of the Emperor Nero. London:
Methuen, 1903.
. The Stu@ of Roman Histo~. 2nd ed. London: Duckworth,
1921.
Hendriksen, William. Colossians and Philemon. New Testament Commentary.
Grand Rapids: Baker, 1964.
Hill, David. New Testament Prophey. Atlanta: John Knox, 1979.
Hodges, Zane C., and Arthur L. Farstad, eds. Th Greek New Testament
According to thz Majorip Text. 2nd ed. Nashville: Thomas Nelson,
1985.
366 BEFORE JERUSALEM FELL
House, H. Wayne, and Ice, Thomas D. Dominion Thology: Messing
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Hug, Johann Leonhart. h.tro&c~ion b the New Tesknnznt. Translated
by David Fosdick, Jr. Andover: Gould and Newman, 1836.
The First Epistle of St. Petir, 1:1 – 2:17. London:
Macmillan, 1898.
Hurst, George L. An Outlinz of the HistoT of Chtitian Literature. New
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Hurst, John Fletcher. Short Htito~ of the Chtitian Church. New York:
Harper, 1892.
Jastrow, Marcus. A Dictionay of the Targumim, tb Talmud Babli and
Yerushalmi, and th Midrashic Literature. 2 vols. New York: Pardes,
1950.
Johnson, George, Jerome D. Hannon, and M. Dominica. Th StoU
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1947.
Johnson, Paul. A Histoy of Christiani~. New York: Atheneum, 1979.
Jones, William. Th Htitoy iftb Christian Churchfiom the Birth qfChtit
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1826.
Joseph, Roy, ed. Th Fat/wrs ~ th Church. Washington: Catholic
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Kautzsch, E., cd., Gesenius' Hebrew Grammar. 28th ed. Translated by
A. E. Cowley. Oxford: Clarendon, 1946.
Kee, Howard Clark. Th Origims of Chtitiani~: Sources and Documimts.
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Understanding th New Testam.mt. 4th ed. Englewood
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Keil, C. F. Biblical Comrrwntay on th Book of Danid. Translated by
M. G. Easton. Keil and Delitzsch Commentary on ~e Old Testament.
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Kenyon, Kathleen M. Digging Up Jerusakm. New York: Praeger,
1974.
. Jerusalem: Excavating 3000 Ears of HtitoT. New York:
McGraw-Hill, 1967.
Kerr, Walter C., trans. Martial: Epigram. Loeb Classical Library.
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Killen, W. D. Th Amizn.t Church: Its Hi@o~, Doctriw, Worship, Constitutwn,
Traced for th First Three Hundred Years. Edited by John Hall.
Select Bibliography Z: Modem Writings 367
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King, Max R. Th Spirit of Prophqv. Warren, OH: by the author, 1971.
Kirban, Salem. Countdown to Rapture. Irvine, CA: Harvest House,
1977.
Klassen, William, ed. Current Issues in New Testament Znt+@retation:
Essays in Honor of Otto A. Piper. New York: Harper, 1962.
Klausner, Joseph. Jesus of Nazareth. London: Allen and Unwin, 1925.
Klostermann, E. DaJ Markusevangelium. 2nd ed. 1926.
Knowles, Louis E. "The Interpretation of the Seventy Weeks of
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PP. 137-138.
Kruger, Gustav. HiJto~ of Ear~ Christian Literature in the First Three
Centwzks. Translated by C. R. Gillett. London: Macmillan, 1897.
Kummel, Werner Georg. Introduction to the NtzLJ Testament. 17th ed.
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Kurtz, Johann Heinrich. Church Histoy. 9th ed. Translated by John
McPherson. New York: Funk and Wagnalls, 1888.
de Labroille, P. Hfitoy and Literature of Christiani~. London: 1924.
Ladd, George Eldon. A T/uolo~ of the New Testament. Grand Rapids:
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Langer, William L., ed. An. Emyclopaedia of World History. 5th ed.
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Latourette, Kenneth Scott. A Histoy of Christiuni~. 2nd ed. 2 vols.
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Lawson, John. A Theological and Htitorical Introduction to the Apostolic
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Learsi, Rufus. Israel: A Histoy of the Jmish People. New York: World,
1949.
Lebreton, Jules, and Jacques Zeiller. Histo~ of th Primitiue Church.
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Lechler, Gotthard Victor. i%e Apostolic and Post-Apostolic Tinws; Thir
Diuersip and Unity in L@ and Doctrine. 3rd ed. Translated by A. J.
K. Davidson. Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark, 1886.
Lewis, Greville P. An Appro@h to th New Testamznt. London: Epworth,
1954.
Lightfoot, Joseph B. Th Apostolic Fat/urs. 2 vols. Macmillan, 1889.
St. Paul% Epistles to the Colossians and to Philemon.
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. St. Paul% Epistle to the Philippians. Grand Rapids:
368 BEFORE JERUSALEM FELL
Baker, (1868) 1953.
and J. R. Harmer. T/w Apostolic Fatlvxs. Grand
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Lindsey, Hal, Th Lati Great Plarwt Earth. Grand Rapids: Zondervan,
1970.
. Z7ure?s a Niw World Coming. Santa Ana, CA: Vision
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Lohse, Eduard. Th New Testament Environnumt. Translated by John
E. Steely. Nashville: Abingdon, 1976.
Luther, Martin. Luther's Woks. Edited by Jaroslav Pelikan. St. Louis:
Concordia, 1957.
Macdonald, James M. T/w Lzji and W'titings of St. Jo/m. London:
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Mahan, Mile. A Church Hi.sto~ of the First Sewn Centuries to the Close of
the Sixth Genaal Coum"l. 3rd ed. New York: E. and J. B. Young,
1892.
Marshall, Alfred. The hzterlimar Greek-English New Testument. 2nd ed.
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1969.
McNeile, A. H. An Introduction to the Stub of the New Testament. Revised
by C. S. C. Williams. 2nd ed. Oxford: Clarendon, 1953.
McSorley, Joseph. An Outlirw of the Hi.stmy of tk Church@ Centuries. 9th
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Metzger, Bruce Manning. A Textual Comrndq on the Greek New
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. % Text of the New Testament. 2nd ed. New York:
Oxford University Press, 1968.
Mickelsen, A. Berkeley. h%r-reting the Bible. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans,
1963.
Milik, J. T., and R. De Vaux. Di.scoueries in the Judean Desert ofJordan.
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Miller, Andrew. Church HMoT j%m the First to th Twentieth Centuries.
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Milman, Henry Hart. Hi.stzny of the Jms. Vol. 2. New York: E. P.
Dutton, (1909) 1943.
Moffatt, James. An Introduction to the Literature of the Nw Testament. 3
Select Bibliography 1: Modem Wi-itings 369
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Momigliano, A. T/u Augwtan Empire, 44 B. C.-A.D. 70. Cambridge
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Mommsen, Theodor. The Provinces of the Roman Empire. London: 1886.
Morgan, Charles Herbert, et al. Studies in the Apostolic Church. New
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Morris, Leon. 1% Gospel According to John. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans,
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Morrison, W. D. The Jizws Unu2r Roman Rule. New York: Putnam,
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von Mosheim, John Laurence. Htitiry of Christianity in the First Three
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Moule, C. F. D. The Birth of the New Testament. 1st ed. Cambridge:
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Th Birth of the New Testament. 3rd ed. New York:
Harper & Row, 1982.
Moule, H. C. G. Studies in Colossians and Philemon. Grand Rapids:
Kregel, (1893) 1977.
. Studies in Philippians. Grand Rapids: Kregel, (1893)
1977.
Moyer, Elgin S. Who Wa Who in Church HistoU. Chicago: Moody,
1962.
Muller, Jac J. Tlw Epistles of Paul to th Philippians and to Philemon. New
International Commentary on the New Testament. Grand Rapids:
Eerdmans, 1955.
Muilenburg, James. Th Litera~ Relations of the Epistle of Bar-mzbas and
tk Teaching of tb Twelve Apostles. Marburg: Yale, 1921.
Myers, J. M. 1 and 2 Esdras: Introduction, Translation, and Commenta~.
The Anchor Bible. Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1974.
Nestle, Eberhard. Introduction to the Textual Critimn of tb Greek New
Testament. Translated by William Edie. London: Williams and
Norgate, 1901.
Nestle, Eberhard, Erwin Nestle, and Kurt Aland, eds. Nozwm Testumentum
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Peters, Ted. Futures: Human and Diuirw. Atlanta: John Knox, 1978.
Pierce, Robert L. Tb Rapture Cult. Signal Mountain, TN: Signal
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Pink, Arthur W. Th Redemr's Return. Ashland, KY: Calvary Baptist
370 BEFORE JERUSALEM FELL
Church, (1918) rep. n.d.
Plumptre, E. H. 27z.e Gospel According to Matt/uw. Invol.60f Ellicott_3
Commentag on the W7zule Bible, edited by John Charles Ellicott.
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Pritchard, John Paul. A Litera~ Approach to tlu New T~tament. Norman,
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Rackham, H., trans. Pliny: Natural Hi.sto~. Loeb Classical Library.
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Ramsay, G. G., trans. Juvenal and Pertius. Loeb Classical Library.
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Reich, Charles A. Tb Greening of Anw-ica. New York: Bantam, 1970.
Reicke, Bo. Th NZZJ Tatament Era: The World $the Biblefiom 500 B. C.
to A.D. 100. Translated by David E. Green. Philadelphia: Fortress,
1968.
Reuss, Eduard Wilhelm Eugen. History of the Sacred Scra>tures of the New
2%starmmt. Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark, 1884.
Robinson, John A. T. Redating the New Testament. Philadelphia: Westminster,
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Russell, J. Stuart. Th Parou.sia: A Study of the New Testarmmt Doctrine
of Our Lor#s Second Coming. 2nd ed. Grand Rapids: Baker, (1887)
1983.
Rutherford, W. Gunion. Tb First Greek Grammar. London: 1935.
Ryrie, Charles C. Th Living End. Old Tappan, NJ: Revell, 1976.
Schafer, Raymond. Ajier the Rapture. Santa Aria, CA: Vision House,
1977.
Schaff, Philip. Htitq of the Christian Church. 3rd ed. 7 vols. Grand
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A Religious Emyclopedia: Or Dictiona~ of Biblical,
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and Wapalls, 1883.
Schmid, J. In Trkologische Revue 62 (1966) :306fi
Scott, Ernest Findlay. Tk Literature of th Niw Testament. Records of
Civilization 15. New York: Columbia University Press, 1932.
Schurer, E. Geschichte des Jitidischen Wlkes im Zeital.%r Jesu Chtiti. 4th
ed. Hildersheim: G. Olms, (1901) 1964.
Scullard, H. H. From the Gracchi to Nero. 2nd ed. New York: Barnes
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Selwyn, Edward C. Th Chtitian Pro@%.s and the PropMic Apoca@pse.
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Select Bibliography I: Modern Writings 371
Sheldon, Henry C. Histo~ of the Chtitian Church. Vol. 1: Th Ear~
Church. New York Thomas Y. Crowell, 1894.
Simpson, W. An Epitome of the HistoV of the Christian Church During the
First Three Centuries and of the Reformation in England. 3rd ed. Cambridge:
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Smallwood, Mary. Th Jws Under Roman Rule. Studies in Judaism in
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Smith, George Adam. Jerusalem: Th Topography, Economics, and HistoV
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1907.
Smith, William. Dictionmy of Greek and Roman Geography. 2 vols. Boston:
Little, Brown, 1870.
Sommervell, David Churchill. A Short Histoy of Our Religion. New
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1955.
Stevens, Ed. What Happemd in 70 A.D.? Ashtabula, OH: North East
Ohio Bible Institute, 1981.
Stonehouse, Ned B. Origins of the S'optic Gospels. London: Tyndale,
1963.
Streeter, Burnett Hillman. Th Imperial Peace, A.D. 70-192. Cambridge
Ancient History, vol. 11. London: Cambridge University
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Tb Four Gospels: A Study of Origins. New York:
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Sutherland, C. H. V. Coinage in Roman Imperial Poltiy, 31 B. C.-A.D.
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Swain, Joseph Ward. The Harper Histimy of Civilization. Vol. 1. New
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Tasker, R. V. G., cd., Th Greek Nm Testament, Being tiu Text Translated
in the New English Bible 1961. Oxford: Ofiord University Press,
1964.
Taylor, Lily Ros. The Divini~ of the Roman Emperor. Middletown, CT:
American Philological Association, 1931.
Taylor, Vincent. The Gospel According to St. Mark. Macmillan New
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Tenney, Merrill C. Nao Testament Times. Chicago: Moody, 1965.
372 BEFORE JERUSALEM FELL
Terry, Milton S. Biblical Apoca~ptics. New York: Eaton and Mains,
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Thackeray, St. John. Josephus: The Man and tb Historian. London:
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Theobald, Robert. Bgond Despair. Washington: New Republic Book
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Tofller, Alvin. Future Shock. Toronto: Bantam, 1970.
Torrey, Charles Cutler. Documents of ttk Primitive Church. New York:
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. 1% Four Gospels. 2nd ed. New York: Harper, 1947.
Uhlhom, Gerhard. Th Con@2t of Christiuni~ with Heath-w.ism. 2nd ed.
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Unger, Merrill F. Introducto~ Guide to the Old Testament. Grand Rapids:
Zondervan, 1951.
Van Antwerp, David D. Church Htito~. 5th ed. Vol. 1. New York:
James Pott, 1884.
. Th Principles of Church Htitoy. 3rd ed. Vol. 1. Baltimore:
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Von Rad, Gerhard. Tibology of the Old Tatazwnt. Vol. 2. English
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Westcott, Brooke Foss. A Ge~ral Surzzy of tb HistoV of the Canon of the
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Ttk Gospel According to St. John. Grand Rapids: Baker,
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. Th Two Empires: The Church and the World. London:
Macmillan, 1909.
WetStein, J. J. Novum i%stamtum Graecum. Vol. 2. Amsterdam: 1751-
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Wilson, Dwight. Armageddon Now! Grand Rapids: Baker, 1977.
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Workman, Herbert B. Persecution in th Ear~ Church. Oxford: Oxford
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Eerdmans, 1964.
The Prophey of Daniel. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans,
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Young, Robert. The New Testanumt in Literal Translation @ tlz Ho~
Bible. Grand Rapids: Baker, (1898) rep. n.d.
Zahn, Theodor. Introduction to thz New Testament. 3rd ed. 3 vols. Translated
by John Moore Trout. Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark, 1909.
SELECT BIBLIOGl&+PHY II: ANCIENT WRITINGS
MAJOR EDITIONS CONSULTED
Charlesworth, James H., ed. Th Old Testament pseudePigra@a. 2 VOIS.
Garden City: Doubleday, 1983.
Josephus, Flavius. The Complete Works of Flavius Josephus. Translated
by William Whiston. Grand Rapids: Kregel, 1977.
Roberts, Alexander, and James Donaldson, eds. T/w Arzte-Nicene Fathers.
10 VOIS. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, (1885) 1975.
Schti, Philip, and Henry Wace, eds. A Select Libray of Nicew and
Post-Nicerw Fat/w-s of tb Christian Church (Second Series). 14 vols.
Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, (1890) 1986.
Smallwood, Mary E. Documents Illustrating the Prirzi~ates of Gaius Claudius
and Nero. Cambridge: University Press, 1967.
Warmington, E. H., ed. Th Loeb Classical Libra~. Cambridge: Harvard
University Press, various dates.
Wright, William. Apooyphul Acts of the Apostles. Amsterdam: Philo,
(1871) 1968.
374
ANCIENT SOURCES
Agbar th King and Addaeus tlu Apostle.
Acts of the Ho@ Apostle and Evangelist John the Thologian.
Acts of the Ho~ Apostle Thaddews.
Acts and Martydom of St. Matthew the Apostle.
Andreas of Cappadocia. Commenta~ on Revelation.
Arethas. Comrnenta~ on Revelation.
Aristophanes. Equites.
. Plutl.13.
. Nubes.
Ascension of Isaiah.
Aurelius, Marcus. Epigrams.
Babylonian Talmud. Yoma.
. Na~ir.
. Sanhednn.
. Uzkin.
Cicero, Marcus Tullius. Philippiw.
Clement of Alexandria. Miscellanies.
. Who Is the Rich Man That Shall Be Saved?
Clement of Rome. Epistle to tk Corinthians (also called 1 Clement).
Constitutions of the Ho~ Apostles.
Cyprian. Treatises.
Dio Cassius. Roman Histo~.
Dio Chrysostom. Oratwns.
Diogwtus.
Dticourse on the End of the World.
Dorotheus. $vnopsis on the Lzfe and Death of the Prophets.
Epiphanies. De Mensuris et Pondetibus,
. Heresies.
Eusebius. Chronizle.
. Th Ecclesiastical Histoy.
. Evangelical Dernomtrations.
375
376 BEFORE JERUSALEM FELL
Hermas. The Shepherd of Hermas.
Herodian. Htitoria Augusta.
. Avidus Cmsius.
. Cornmodus.
Hippolytus. Against Noetus.
. ExPosito~ Treatise Against the Jms.
. Treatise on Christ and Antichtit.
Ignatius. Epistle to the Magnzsians.
. Eptitle to the Remans.
. Eptitle to the Smpazans.
. Epistle to the Trallians.
Ignatius (Pseudo-Ignatius). Epistle to Hero.
. Epistle to the Philippians.
Irenaeus. Against Heresies.
. Letter to Florinus.
Jerome. Against Jovinianum.
. Chronica.
. Epistle to t?u Galatians.
. Concerning Illu.striow Men.
Josephus, Flavius. Against Apwn.
. Antiquities of thJiws.
. Wars of the JUS.
Juvenal. Satires.
Lactantius. Diviu Instituta.
. Epitonw of th Divine Instituta.
. On trk Manner in 14%tih the Persecutors Died.
. Letter of Mara.
Martial, Maruc Valerius. Book of Spectacles.
. Epigram.
Martyr, Justin. First Apology.
. Dialogue with T~Pho the Jm.
. Moses of Chorena
The Octavia.
Orosius, F'aulus. Th Sewn Books of Htito~ Agaiwt th Pagans.
Philo. Against Flaccus.
. Concerning Abraham.
. On th Embassy to Gaius.
. kgatio ad C@um.
Arwient Sources 377
Philostratus. Li@ of Apollonius of Tjana.
Pliny the Elder. Natural HistoV.
Pliny the Younger. Epistles.
. Pam*.
Revelation of Paul
Seneca the Younger. A$ocolocytosis (or, Pumpkinz@cation).
. On Clememy.
Severus, Sulpicius. Dialogues.
. Letters.
. Sacred Histo~.
Sibylline Oracles.
Suetonius. Th Lives of th Twelue Caesars: Caligula.
. Tb Lives of thz Twelve Caesars: Claudius.
. Tb Lives of tb Twelve Caesars: The Divine Julius.
. Th Lives of the Twelve Caesars: Nero.
. T/w Lives of the Twelve Caesars: Galba, Otho, Vitellius.
. % Lives of the Twelve Caaars: Tb Divine Vespmian.
Suidas.
Tacims. 11.e Annals.
. Th Histories.
Teaching of Addaeus the Apostle.
Teaching of the Apostles.
Z?aching of Simon Cephas.
Tertullian. Against Marcion.
. An Amwer to the Jms.
. Antidoti forth Scorpion's Sting.
. Apology.
. Carm. adv. Mar.
. Tb Shows.
. On the Exclusion of Heretics.
. On Idolat~.
. On th Mantle.
. Orations.
. To the Nations.
Theophylact. Commenta~ on John.
Victorious. Comnwntay on th Apoca~pse.
Victor, Aurelius. Tb Epitom on tb Lives and Characters of the Caesars.
15:17
35:22
46:8
49
Exodus
1:1
13:21-22
14:19-20
16-19
19:19
l.evitti
2616
2622
Numbers
1
2
13:4
26
34
Deutmonomy
411
27:11
33:6
Joshua
13-22
Judges
123
224n
224n
224n
123
123
123
123
212n
212n
224n
224n
224n
224n
224n
123
224n
224n
224n
5 224n
SCRIPTURE INDEX
(Prepared by Bob Nance)
.? Kings
21:12, 13
I Chronicles
2-8
12:24
27:16
Nehemiah
11:1-18
Job
22:14
Psalms
18:7-15
188
46:4
481,8
72:16
87:3
9Q4
97:2
104:3
Proverbs
25:2
EulesiQsta
3:1-11
Isaiah
1;9, 10
1:20
379
175
224n
224n
224n
170
123
123
123
170
170
173n
170
224
123
123
5
5
170n
241n
380
11:6-9
11:9
19:1
34:11
46:6
48:2
52:1
567
57:13
59:20
65:11,25
Jeremiah
31:31
32:24
L42mentaliom
2:8
Ezekiel
7:23
16:4+5-49
32:7-8
3425
48
Daniel
7:10
7:13
8:26
9
9:24,26
9:24-27
9:25
Hoses
12:8
Joel
2:1, 15
2:1,2
3:17
AmOJ
7:8,9
212n
170
123
175
173n
170
170
170
170
171n
170
241n
173n
175
173n
170n
123
212n
224n
224
129
135n
349, 352n
135n
351
349
320
171n
123
171n
175
BEFORE JEKUSAL!LM *
Micah
1039
Nahum
1:2
.Z@antih
1:14, 15
3:14
3:16
12:10
ZeChariah
1:14, 17
8:3
Mattha
3:7
4:5
5:35
10:6
12:13-17
12:38-45
12:40
13
15:21
16:6
16:21
19:28
20:22
20:28
21:33-46
22:1-14
22:15-22
23
23:2
23:31-38
23:32
23:32-36
23:32-38
23:34-48
23:37
24 ~
241-2
242
93
123
123
171n"
171n
129
171n
171n
234
I 70
170
221n
269
247
249
248n
221n
98n
170
223n
53, 108
221
234
124
269
129
129
234
131
142n
129
240n
241n
130, 175,349,350, 352
130, 131, 135n, 233
174, 186
Scripture Ina!ex 381
242-34 351
242,3 242
243 351
243-8, 15-16, 242
33
246,7 242
241-34 16, 234
2413 234
2415 130, 135n, 349, 350n
2415-16 130, 131
2416 233
2419-21 350
24:21 130, 234
24:21-34 142n
2422 233
2430 123, 130
2432 140, 234
2434 130, 131,242, 351
26:4 124
26:14-15,47 124
2618 140
2664 123, 142n
27:1 123
27:2, 11, 12 124
27:3-9
27:24-25
27:53
27:59-62
27:65-66
Mark
1:15
3:18
8:31
1032-34
13
Luke
2:1
9:22
12:21
13:32
13:33
1615
17:11
1%8
124
124
170
124
124
248n ,
210
170
170
175
143n
170
320
170
240n
320
170
135, 138
1811, 12 320
19:28 170
20:20-26 269
21 350
21:20 176, 350n
21:20,23,24 350
21:20-24
21:21
21:24
22:20
22:30
23:28-31
24:44-53
2447
John
1:11
2:13
7:2
8:44
11:53
11:55
12:31
17:17
18:30-31
18:36
18:38
1839, 44)
19:6, 15
19:11
19:12
19:14-15
19:15
19:16
Acts
1
1:8
1:11
2
2-5
2:1
2:16
2:16-17
2:20
349
176
175, 176
143
223n
130
226
174
221n
140
140
249
124
140
337
333
123
174
124
124
124
124
124
124
159
241n
226
16, 174>221
123
226
221
16, 221
234
135n
234
2:22-23,36 124
382
2:40
2:41
243
2:46
3:1
3:13
3:13-15a
4:1
4:4
4:25
4:32
5:21
5:30
7:51-52
7:52
8:1
10
1033
11
11:2
11:26
12:7
13:5, 14
13:50
141
142,5, 19
15
15:2
15:21
17:1
17:5
17;7
17:15
18:2
234
227
234
221
221
124
124
221
227
249
234
221
124
240
124
174,226
221
138
221
226
293n
135, 138
221
222
221
222
221
16, 174,226
22 I
221
223
159, 141n
138
293n
18:4, 7, 19, 26 221
18:8 227
19:8 221
20:29 328
21:20,22 227
21:26 221
22:18 135, 138
22:19 221
2411 221
2412 221
25:4 135
26:11 221
BEFORE JERUSALEM FELL
26:18
26:21
26:28
28:23-24
1:16
2:17-29
13:11, 12
16
1614
1620
1 Corinthians
1:5
3:16
46-8
4 8
619
7:26
7:29-31
7:29-31, 36
8:6
10:11
10:32
11:25
13:1
16:17
2 Connthiam
5:19
616
8:9
105
Galattim
1:6-7
1:17, 18
2
2:1,2
2:9
3:27-29
%29
424
5:7
228n
221
293n
227
221
222
142n, 235n
88
86,88,89
135, 138, 142n
320
174
322
320
174
235n
235n
142n
278
135n
143n
143
320
179
336
174
320
337
327
226
221
226
212
221
227
241n
327
Scri.ture Index
615
616
E#winns
2:6
2:19
Philijyim
1:5
3:3
45
Col%mians
1:13
3:1,2
3:6
416-17
I lltessalonimu
2:14-15
2:16
413
I Timothy
1:6
2:2
3:14
2 7inwthy
3:16
3:16-17
3:17
4
410
Titus
1:12
1:12, 13
Phiianon
9
Hebrews
1:1>2
227
221, 223n
174
82, 174
324
221,227
324
248n
174
142n, 235
328
124
142n, 235
123
328
159
138
14, 151
5
333
328
328
212
305
84
135n
1:3
926
1025, 37
12:18
12:18-29
12:22
James
1:1
5:8,9
I Petir
1:20
2:2
2:5
2:9
2:13, 17
45, 7
4:15
4:16
2 Peter
3:8
1 John
2:17, 18
2:18
1
1:1
1:1,3, 19
1:2
1:3
1:4, 11
1:7
1:7,8
1:9
1:11
1:12, 17
174
135n
142n, 235n
241n
235
224
223n
142n, 235n
135n
333
174
223n
159
142n, 235n
296n
293n
136, 224
142n, 235n
135n
115
118, 134, 136n, 137, 138,
142
133, 164, 218n, 233n
118
140; 142, 151
15
121, 121n, 122, 127, 128,
129, 133n, 142, 143, 233,
238,240, 24Qn
122
15>42, 67, 107, 139, 141,
143, 150, 201, 234, 240,
286
139, 150
118
BEFORE JERUSALEM FELL
1:17
1:19
2
2:3
2:3, 13
2:4,5
2:5, 16
2:5, 16,25
2:6, 15
2:8-11
2:9
2:9, 14
2:9, 10, 16
2:10
2:16
2:22
3
3:1c-2
3:2
3:3, 10
3:3, 11,20
3:8
3:9
3:10
3:11
3:12
3:15-18a
3:17
3:14
4
41-22:5
41-22:6
41, 2
4:11
5:1,6
5:4
5:5
5:9
6
6-11
6-19
61
63-4
6 4
6 9
118
141, 142
15, 115
42, 139
262
326
330
122, 133n, 142
329n
322,323,324
143,222, 225,329
212
143
91, 150
133, 134
201,234
15, 115
326
143
330
122, 142
262
143, 212, 222,225, 329
91, 133, 141, 142, 143,
143n, 150, 164, 233n
134, 141
91
326
319,320,322
210n
163
348
133
118
42
118
118
127
128
115, 240, 240n
119
238
118
241
217,242
233n
65-6
610
610, 11, 17
611
612
6:16
7
7:1
7:1-7
7:1-8
7:9
7:2
7:4
7:4-8
7:9
7:9, 13, 14
7:14
8
8:2
8:13
9
91
91-3
9:1-12
9:3
9:4
9:5, 10
9:5-1o
9:11
913
10:1
10:4
10:4,9, 10
10:6
10:11
11
11:1
11:1,2
11:1-8
11:1-13
11:1-14
11:2
ll:2b
243
139, 164,201
134n
91
107
130
148, 174n, 212,235
107, 108, 118
243
232
233
107
107, 108
116, 223, 225
128
148
134n, 234
240
118
134n
240
118
247
10, 247
91
247
247,248
247
210,224,247, 329n
247
118
148
118
134n
99
16, 115, 165, 175, 181,
236, 24Q, 240n
165, 166, 174, 174n, 175,
176
118, 165, 166, 167, 175,
236,243
225
167
165
165, 176, 236,247, 247n
176
Scripture In&x 385
11:3
11:8
11:9
11:14, 17
12
12:1
12:9
12:11
12:20-36
13
13:1
13:1, 2,4
13:1, 3
13:lb-2a
13:lb-8
13:1-7, 10
13:1
13:3
13:4
13:3, 14
13:5
13:5-7
13:6
13:7
13:8
13:10
13:10, 14
13:12
13:14
13:15
13:17
13:18
14
148
14-18
14:1
14:6
149-11
1419-20
15:2
16:1-4
247n
162, 170, 170n, 174, 175,
236, 240n, 241 n, 330n
128
134n
167
90,225
210, 329n
42, 262
310n
42, 46, 90, 193, 206, 211,
212, 213, 240, 276, 277,
286,300
225,310
254
310
213
276
167
118
79, 302, 304, 309, 311,
315
311
301
247
253
254
128, 254
254
215, 218, 218n, 240
217,310
309
42,218, 302
262, 282n
208
193, 196, 198, 199n,
200n, 201,262,310
212
240n, 241n
240
223
128
262
243
262
225
16:2
16:6
16:15
1616
16:21a
17
17:1
17:1-6
17:2-5
17:3
17:3,6-13
17:3,910
17:4
17:5
17:6
17:7
17:8
17:8, 11
17:9a
17:9-10a
17:9, 10
17:9-11
17:10
17:10-11
17:11
18:9, 10
1810, 15
18:21>24
19
19:1, 3,4,6
19:10
19:10,26
19:20
19:19-21
202
20:4
21:1
21:2
21:12
21:14
22
22:6
22:6,20
262
240n
122, 142
210,224, 329n
245
8, 115, 118n, 146, 148,
158, 161, 162, 164, 193,
240n, 264,300,301,335
147, 148
147
241n
147, 217
146
310
217
241n
118, 148, 240n
148, 162
302
301
147
149
146, 148, 254
118n
151, 152, 158, 160, 310,
311
308,310
302>303,310,315,316
175
42
24Qn
324
210n
118
324
262
240
215, 329n
42,262
241n
241n
127, 223, 225
91
135
134, 138, 218n
136n
386
226,7, 133
12,20
22:6,10, 164
12,20
22:7 135, 151
BEFORE JERUSALEM FELL
22:7-12 233n
227, 12,20 122, 134, 142
22:10 135n, 140
22:12 138
22:20 122, 138
MODERN AUTHORS INDEX
Abauzi~ F-in, 31, 241n.
Abbe, 200.
Abbott, E. A., 168.
Abbott-Smith, G., 138, 142, 194n.
Adams, Jay E., 31, 168.
Adeney, Walter F., 4n, 13.
Aland, Kurt, 107n, 138, 139n, 190n, 196n,
201 n, 227n, 264n, 269n.
Albertz, 325n.
Aleasar, Luis de, 31.
Alexander, J. A., 8n.
Alford, Henry, 44,46, 153.
Allen, Willoughby C., 14, 20.
Allis, Oswald T., 13.
Angus, S., 227n, 296n, 297n.
Amdt, W. F., 127n, 138, 140, 143, 212n.
Aube, B., 31, 296n.
Auberlen, Karl August, 31.
Backhouse, Edward, 256n.
Bahnsen, Greg L., 30, 31.
Baljon, 168.
Barabas, Steven, 233n.
Barclay, William, 13, 260n.
Barker, Glenn W., 81 n, 288n.
Barnes, Albert, 43, 141,285.
Barnes, Arthur Stapylton, 31,48,87,
lOOn, 177, 179n.
Barth, F., 168.
Bartlet, James Vernon,31, 183.
Batiffol, Pierre, 296n.
Baur, Ferdinand Christian, 27,31,200,
304n.
Beasley-Murray, G. R, 13, 14n, 18n, 150,
285.
Beck, William F., 138.
Beckwith, Isbon T., 12, 16, 153, 162n,
168, 210n, 261n, 265,266, 267n, 301n,
302n, 323n.
Beeson, Ulrich R., 30n.
Behm, J., 323, 325n.
Bell, Albert A., Jr., 31, 157n, 289.
Benary, 199, 200.
Ben-Gurion, David, 17 In.
Benoit, P., 199n, 325n.
Ben-Sasson, H. H., 21 in.
Berkhof, Louis, 15, 19, 20.
Bernhard, Thomas Dehaney, 122, 130,
131n.
Berry, George Ricker, 141.
Bertholdt, Leonard, 31.
Betde, 214.
Beyshlag, Willibald, 31,200.
Bigg, Charles, 31.
Black, Matthew, 201 n.
Blass, Friedrich, 142n.
Bleek,Friedrich,31, 42, 152, 165,200,
304n.
Board, Stephen, 6n.
Boer, Harry E., 18n.
Bohmer, Heinrich, 32,48.
Boissier, Gaston, 296n.
Bolton, 209.
Bonnard, P., 325n.
Bousset, Wilhelm, 32,42, 168, 330n.
Bovan, M. J., 48,49.
Box, G. H., 156, 156n, 187, 189.
Brandon, S. G. F., 210n, 226n, 227n,
230, 244n.
Bright, John, 200.
Briggs, C. A., 168.
Bromiley, Geoffi-ey W., 194n.
387
388 BEFORE JERUSALEM FELL
Brown, David, 96n.
Bruce, F. F., 32, 52n, 93n, 94n, 248n,
250n, 252, 278n, 281,288, 288n, 325n.
Bruston, 168.
Buchanan, Neil, 31.
Bullinger, E. W., 316n.
Bultmann, Rudolf, 32.
Bunsen, Christian Kad Josias, 32.
Burch, Vacher,3n, 13,241n.
Burrows, Miller, 194n.
Bury, J. B., 296n.
Buttcrworth, G. W., 68n.
Caird, G. B., 60n, 169, 196, 315.
Calmes, 168.
Calvin, John, 11.
Cappadeha, Luigi, 255n.
Came, Thomas E., 119n.
Carpenter, J. E., 159n.
Carpenter, W. Boyd, 9,32.
Carron, T. W., 255n.
Cartledge, Samuel A., 25, 325n.
Cary, Ernest, 289n.
Cary, M., 265n, 289.
Case, Shirley Jackson, 153n, 200.
Caspari, 86.
Cave, William, 87.
Charles, R. H., 11, 26, 27n, 43, 68n, 90,
91n, 98, 101, 105n, 108n, 130n, 167,
169, 198n, 206, 209, 210, 223n, 224n,
260n, 261,262, 287,300, 301n, 302n,
318, 320, 323, 324.
Charlesworth, James H., 74n, 155n, 189,
195n, 247n, 275n.
Chase, S. H., 48,50,55,56, 57.
Cheetham, S., 32.
Chilton, David, 10,32, 122, 127, 239n,
241 n, 286n, 308n, 316n, 339,342-348.
Clarke, Adam, 30,32, 127, 150.
Clarke, William Newton, 32.
Clogg, F. B., 325n.
Collins, J. J., 74, 75,77, 157, 172, 185,
186, 195n, 214n, 216, 275n.
Coggins, R. J., 156, 247n.
Coney-beare, W. J., 274n, 283.
Connick, C. Mile, 14.
Cotelier, Jean Baptiste, 87.
Cowan, Henry, 255n.
Cowles, Henry, 32,200.
Coxe, A. Cleveland, 90, 177, 183.
Crane, Thomas E., 261n.
Crebs, Berry Stewart, 32.
Credner, Karl August, 32.
Cunningham, Francis, 254n.
Daale~ David H. van, 287.
Dalman, G., 21 In.
Dametz, Maurice Gordon, 23 in.
Davidson, A. J. K., 32n, 85n, 209n.
Davidson, Samuel, 32.
Davies, J. G., 221n, 230, 231n.
De Boor, C., 92.
Debrunner, Albert, 142n.
Deferrari, P. J., 83n, 291n.
Deissmann, Adolf, 269n.
de Labriolle, P., 228n.
Delitzsch, Franz, 17n.
DePressense, Edmund, 33.
DeQuincey, Thomas, 214.
Desprez, P. S., 33, 103n, 107, 128, 131,
239n, 241 n, 286n.
De Vaux, R., 199n.
De Wette, W. M. L., 33, 304n.
Dibelius, M., 325n.
Diderot, Denis, 214.
Dix, Gregory, 221n, 230.
Dodd, C. H., 32n.
Dodgson, C., 82n.
Dominica, M., 255n.
Donaldson, James, 45n, 90n, 125, 157n,
183, 190, 197n, 351, 352n.
Dowley, Tim, 94n.
Driver, G., 200.
Duncan, George Simpson, 325n.
Duruy, Victor, 214.
Diisterdieck, Friedrich, 33, 121-122, 152,
165, 266n, 269n, 304n, 308n, 315,
330n.
Earle, RaIph, 13.
Easton, Burton Scott, 127n.
Eckhardt, K. A., 95n.
Mods-n Authors Index
Edersheim, Alfi-ed, 128, 129n, 172, 343.
Edmundson, George, 25,48,52, 66n, 78n,
81,89, 90n, 119n, 120, 177, 180n,
200, 276n, 288n, 293, 296n, 298n.
Ehdich, Paul R., 7n.
Eichhorn, Johann Gott6ied, 33.
Eisler, R., 211 n, 228n.
Ellicott, John Charles, 46.
Erbes, 33, 168.
Ewald, H. A., 33, 159n, 183, 199, 200,
229, 297n, 330n.
Exell, Joseph S., 36
Farrar, Frederic W., 28, 30,33, 46n,
47, 49n, 61n, 83n, 84n, 115, 119, 120,
131, 144n, 159n, 196n, 199n, 200,
207n, 215n, 221n, 240n, 286n, 296n,
303n, 304,307.
Farrer, Austin, 23, 118, 200.
Farstad, Arthur L., 196n.
Fausset, A. R., 96n, 103n, 107, 149n.
Faye, Eugene de, 168.
Ferkiss, Victor, 7n.
Feuillet, Andre, 41.
Field, Grenville, O., 33.
Fitzmeyer, Joseph A, 33, 220n.
Feine, P., 323, 325n.
Feuillet, Andre, 118n, 119n, 26 in.
Foerster, Werner, 214n.
Ford, J. Massyngberde, 33, 194n, 241n.
Fosdick, David, Jr., 91n.
Franzmann, Martin H., 11.
Frend, W. H. C., 45n, 183n, 184n, 190n,
223,230, 250n, 280n.
Friedrich, Gerhard, 127n.
Fritzsche, K. F. A., 199, 200.
Fuller, Reginald H., 287.
Funk, Franz Xavier, 183, 255n.
Funk, Robert W., 142n.
Fumeaux, Henry, 296n.
Gaffin, Richard, 234n.
Gallandi, Andrea, 87.
Gebhardt, Herrnann, 34, 170n.
Geisler, Norman, 6n.
Gentry, Kenneth L.,Jr., 234n, 342.
Gkseler, J. C. I., 230n, 254n.
Giet, Stansius, 168.
Gill, John, 150n.
Gilmour, S. MacLean, 152.
Gingrich, F. W., 127n, 138, 140, 143,
212n.
Ginzberg, Louis, 189.
Glasgow, James, 34.
Goguel, Maurice, 168, 228n.
Gonzalez, Justo L., 255n.
Goodspeed, Edgar J., 87,91.
Goppeh,Leonhard,221.
Grant, Michael, 272n.
Grant, Robert McQueen, 34.
Gray, James Compcr, 34.
Green, David E., 238n, 27 in.
Green, Jay P., Sr., 141n.
Green, Samuel G., 34, 255n.
Greenlee, J. Harold, 202.
Gregory, C. R., 197.
Gregory, George, 255n.
Grensted, L. W., 14n, 20.
Griffin, Miriam T., 69n, 71n, 73, 271n.
Grotius, Hugo, 18n, 34.
Guignebert, Charles, 22 in.
Gundry, Robert H., 18n, 25, 26, 210n.
Guthrie, Donald B., 4,9, 18n, 20, 23,43,
45n, 58n, 61,65, 68n, 91, 104, 108,
116, 119, 130n, 169, 176, 203n, 204,
210n, 259, 260n, 261,263, 285, 303,
318, 320, 323,325, 327n, 328, 329n,
348n.
Guericke, H. E. F., 34, 48n, 51 n, 53.
Gwatkin, Henry Melville, 34.
Gwynn, John, 106n.
Hamsnon~ N. G. L., 18n, 34, 48, 144n.
Harbuig, 34.
Harduin, 34.
Hardy, E. G., 288n, 296n, 298n.
Harenburg, 34, 241 n.
Harmer, J. R., 81 n, 88n, 93, 94n, 295n,
322n.
Harnack, Adolf von, 28,42, 90n, 92, 107n,
168, 192n, 229, 264n, 294n.
Harris, R. Laird, 93.
390 BEFORE JERUSALEM FELL
Harrison, R. K., 17n.
Hartwig, H. G., 34, 241n.
Hase, Karl August von, 34.
Hastings, James, 27n.
Hausrath, 34, 200.
Hayes, D. A., 34, 38n.
Hemer, C. J., 319n.
Henderson, Bernard W., 25, 34,45,60,
72, 73n, 200, 213n, 214, 229, 250n,
264n, 266n, 270n, 271n, 272n, 275n,
278,280, 28in, 282n, 283, 293,295,
296n, 304, 309n, 31 in.
Hendriksen, Wi11iam,121n, 150n,204,
285, 325, 328n.
Hengstenberg, C. W., 46, 330n.
Hentenius, 34.
Herder, Johann Gottfiied von, 35, 241 n.
Herrenschneider, J. S., 35.
Hermann, Gebhardt, 200.
Hilgenfeld, Adol~ 27,35, 48n, 183,200,
304n.
Hill, David, 3n, 35.
Hillers, D. R., 199n, 200.
Hitzig, Ferdinand, 35, 199,200.
Hodges, Zane C., 196n.
Hoeksema, Herman, 136, 140, 153n,
164n.
Holtzmann, Heinrich Julius, 35.
Holtzmann, O., 168.
Holweerda, 241 n.
Hort, F. J. A., 23,28,35,41,48,49, 50,
53,60, 69n, 80n, 81,95,98, 104, 116,
117, 138, 199,209, 225n, 240n, 288,
296, 297n, 321 n, 345, 346.
House, H. Wayne, 339-353.
Hovey, Alvah, 7n.
Howson, J. S., 274n, 283.
Hug, Johann Leonhart, 35,91.
Hurst, John Fletcher, 255n.
Hurst, George L., 183.
Hurte, William, 35.
Ice, Thomas D., 339-353.
Immer, A., 35.
J-k Henry K, 266n, 304n, 330n.
James, E. O., 231n.
Jamieson, Robert, %n.
Jastrow, Marcus, 199.
Jerome, D. Harmon, 255n.
Johnson, George, 255n.
Johnson, Paul, 273n.
Jones, William, 255n.
Julicher, 330n.
Kautzscb E., 194n.
Keble, John, 62n.
Keck, Leander E., 325n.
Kee, Howard Clark, 3n, 156n, 209n,
231 n, 260n, 268n, 280n, 301n.
Keil, C. F., 17n.
Keim, Theodor, 35, 296n.
Kenyon, Kathleen M., 236n, 237.
Kerr, Walter C., 7 in.
Kepler, Thomas S, 18, 18n.
Kiddie, Martin, 116, 119, 200,201.
Kittle, Gerhard, 127n.
KNen, W. D., 256n.
Kkg, Max R., 30n.
Klrban, Salem., 6n.
Kitto, John, 32.
Klausner, Joseph, 21 in.
Klostesmann, E., 210n.
Klijn, A. F. J., 187n.
Knibb, M. A., 156n, 247n.
Knight, George W. HI, ix.
Knowles, Louis E., 352n.
Koppe, Theodor, 35.
Krenkel, Max, 35, 200.
Kruger, Gustav, 209n.
Kummel, Werner Georg, 3n, 168, 209n,
210n, 260n, 285,301,318, 319, 323n,
325,328, 348n.
Kurfess, A. M., 185.
Kurtz, Johann Heinrich, 35, 255n.
hChlallll, Karl, 87.
Ladd, George Eldon, 25,81, 82n, 145n,
153,204, 287, 288.
Lake, Kirsopp, 325n.
Lampe, F. A., 84n.
Landsman, J. I., 189.
Moohn Authors Ind?x 391
Lane, William L., 81n, 288n.
Lange, John Peter, 9n, 46.
Langer, William L., 144n.
Lardner, Nathaniel, 87.
Latourette, Kenneth Scott, 242.
Lawson, John, 87,91.
Laymen, Charles M., 325n.
Learsi, Rufus, 211 n, 235n.
Lebreton, Jules, 296n.
Lechler, Gotthard Victor, 35.
Lee, Francis Nigel, 35, 58,59, 103n.
Lewis, Grcville P., 13.
Lightfoot, Joseph B., 23,27,35,60,81,
86,88, 90n, 93, 94n, 177n, 179, 183,
223n, 295n, 322n, 324,325,328.
Lindsey, Hal, 6,8,347.
Lohse, Eduard, 273n.
Longnecker, Richard, 94n.
Lucke, Gottfiied C. F., 35, 304n.
Luthardt, Christoph Ernst, 35.
Luther, Martin, 11.
Macdonald, James M., 36, 48,49n,51,
115, 118, 119n, 166, 233n, 252n, 304,
305, 330n, 344n.
McPherson, John, 255n.
Mahan, Mile, 255n.
Marivale, 214.
Marshall, Alfred, 128, 141.
Martineau, Russell, 159n, 168.
Masterman, E. W. G., 248, 253n.
Maurer, Christian, 127n.
Maurice, Frederick Denisen, 36.
McHale, John, 7n.
McNeile, A. H., 168, 325n.
McSorky, Joseph, 255n.
Meinardus, Otto F. A., 325n.
Merivale, Charles, 73, 296n.
Messenger, Ernest C., 296n.
Metzger, Bruce Manning, 106n, 155n,
156n, 187, 197n, 200,203, 247n, 313n.
Meyer, A., 168.
MGMert, A. C., 168.
Michael, J. H., 325n.
M,chaelis, John David, 36.
Michaelis, W., 325n.
Michaels, J. Ramsey, 81n, 288n.
Mickelsen, A. Berkeley, 13, 14n, 15, 16n.
Milbum, R. L., 288n.
Milik, J. T., 199n.
Miller, Andrew, 255n.
Milligan, WNiam, 18n, 23,28, 169, 183,
200,204.
Mlls, Jessie E., 30n.
Milman, Henry Hart, 228n.
MIlvaine, Charles Pettit, 36.
Moffatt, James, 3n, 23,43,44,48,61,
105n, 137, 139n, 151, 152n, 160, 167,
181, 182, 183, 210, 260n, 261,263,
267, 268n, 271 n, 287,300, 315,318,
320, 323,324, 328, 330n.
Momigliano, A., 25,36, 228n, 272n.
Mommsen, Theodor, 36 228n, 296n.
Morgan, Charles Herbert, 36
Morns, Leon, 11, 18n, 26, 41n, 114, 136,
140, 152, 2@3, 201,203,204,208,
223n, 259, 260n, 261,263,285,287,
300, 310n, 318, 319,321, 322, 323n,
324,326,327, 330n.
Morrison, W. D., 228n.
Mosheim, John Laurence von, 55, 80n,
143n, 242n, 255n, 297n.
Moule, C. F. D., 25, 33n, 36, 173n, 181n,
182, 183, 220n, 226n, 227n, 228n,
253n, 288, 296n.
Moule, H. C. G., 325, 328n.
Mounce, Robert H., 4n, 17n, 18n, 43n,
91n, 104, 105n, 135, 139, 141, 150,
153, 169, 175, 176, 193n, 198n, 203n,
204,205,218, 222n, 223,259,261,
285,299,301,303,318, 319,320,321,
323n, 327n.
Moyer, Elgin S., 92n, 279.
Muilenburg, James, 183n.
Miiller, JacJ., 325.
Muratori, L. A., 93.
Myers, J. M., 156n, 187.
Neander, John Augustus Wilhelm, 36
Nestle, Eberhard, 196n, 202.
Newbolt, M. R., 5.
Newman, Barclay M., Jr., 3n, 24,42,
392 BEFORE JERUSALEM FELL
66n, 286n, 287.
Newton, Sir Isaac, 36.
Newton, Thomas, 36.
Nicoll, W. Robertson, 3n, 43, 264)n.
Niermeyer, A., 36.
North, Gary, 340.
Oman, J., 130n.
Orr, James.
Peak% Arthur S., 26, 28, 30, 41n, 45n,
46,47,58,60, 106n, 108n, 200, 269n,
279, 287, 296n, 30 ln, 302n.
Pelikan, Jaroslav, 1 ln,
Peters, Ted, 6n, 7.
Pfleiderer, 168.
Phillips, J. B., 137.
Philmore, J. S., 70n.
Pierce, Robert L., 30n.
Pink, Arthur W., 8n.
Platinga, Theodore, 241 n.
Plummer, Alfred, 36
Plumtree, Edward Hayes, 36
Pritchard, John Paul, 301 n.
Raabe, A. H., 296n.
Racine, Jean, 73.
Rambaut, W. H., 4%, 55n, 207n.
Ramsay, William M.,211, 278,293, 294n,
295,297.
Randell, T., 36,65, 95n.
Ratton, James J. L., 3684n, 93n, 99,
244n, 265n, 266, 272n, 296n, 299,
330n.
Rausch, C., 168.
Reich, Charles A., 7n.
Reicke, Bo, 200, 209, 230,237, 238n,
253n, 271n, 272.
Renan, Ernest, 36200,214, 296n, 297n,
304n.
Reuss, Eduard Wilhelm Eugen, 12,37,
42, 151, 183, 196, 199, 200.
Reville, Jean, 37, 200.
Richardson, Donald W., 13, 122, 204.
Riddle, M. B., 191n.
Rksi, M., 168.
Rist, Martin, 152.
Roberts, Alexander, 45n, 49n, 55n, 90n,
125, 157n, 183, 190, 197n, 351, 352n.
Roberts,J. W., 18n, 37, 145.
Robertson, A. T., 94n.
Robertson, O. Palmer, 234n.
Robinson, John A. T., 27,29,30,37,
45n, 47,53,54, 56,60, 70n, 87n, 89,
90, 95n, 99, 104, 115n, 117, 152, 156n,
157n, 166, 169, 173, 177, 178, 182,
183, 187, 200,225, 226n, 263, 272n,
279, 302n, 304, 323n, 325.
Roth, C. L., 297n.
Rowlingson, Donald T., 325n.
Rubinkiewicz, R., 188, 189.
Riihle, Oskar, 194n, 196n.
Rushdoony, Rousas John, 341.
Russell, J. Stuart, 37, 122, 131, 196n,
200, 239n, 241n, 249n, 286n, 304,307,
344n.
Ruter, Martin, 255n.
Ruthetiord, John, 255n.
Ruthefiord, W. Gunion, 194n.
Ryland, J. E., 36
Ryne, Charles C., 5n, 10, 164n, 352n.
Sabatier, 200.
Sade, Marquis de, 73.
Sanday, W., 37, 48n, 296n.
Schaaf, James L., 190n.
Schafer, Raymond, 201 n.
Schafi Philip, 7, 8n, 12,26,28,37,43,
52n, 55, 58n, 60n, 68n, 87, 92n, 94,
97, 102n, IO&-i, 115, 116, 118, 130,
144n, 145n, 180n, 183, 184n, 190n,
192n, 21 ln, 221,229, 240n, 248n, 278,
297n, 308n, 315, 345.
Schilder, K., 241n.
Schleusner, Johann Fricdrich, 37.
Schmid, J., 209n.
Schmidt, K. L., 168.
Schmiedel, P. W., 168.
Schodde, G. H., 38, 308n.
Scholten, J. H., 37.
Schon, 168.
Schulze, Henry, 9n.
Modern Authors Index 393
Schurer, E., 21 In, 223n, 330n.
Schwegler, Albert, 37.
Scott, Ernest Findlay, 130n, 301 n, 325n.
Scott, J. J., 37,48.
Scott, Kenneth, 264n.
Scullard, H. H., 144n, 265n, 267n, 273n.
Seiss,Joseph A., 153.
Selwyn, Edward C., 37,48,64,264, 266n,
268n, 269n.
Shakespeare, William, 73.
Sheldon, Heruy C., 37.
Simcox, WNiam Henry, 27n, 37,44, 53n,
66n, 102n.
Simpson, W., 256n.
Singer, W. Gregg, ix.
Smallwocd, E. Mary, 228n, 238n, 270n,
272n.
Smith, D. Moody, 37.
Smith, George Adam, 170n, 172n, 173n.
Smith, Justin A., 7, 122.
Smith, Thomas, 191n.
Smith, William, 106n, 149n,
Snape, H. C., 228n.
Sommervell, David Churchill, 256n.
Spence, H. D. M., 36
Spitta, F., 168.
Sprinzl, 87.
Stanely, Arthur Penrhyn, 37.
Stauffer, Ethelbert, 149n, 207n, 271n, 273,
274n.
Steir, Rudolf Ewald, 37,249.
Stevens, Ed, 30n.
Stevenson, J., 296n.
Stonehouse, Ned B., 4n, 113-114, 34%.
Storr, G. C., 53n.
Streeter, B. H., 65, 226n, 228n.
Strong, Augustus H., 37.
Stuart, Moses, 26,3 ln, 38, 44n, 45n,
49n, 53,54,55,66,67,83, 88n, 90,
96,99, 106n, 107, 108n, 117, 119,
120, 121, 123n, 151, 154, 158, 159n,
163n, 169, 199, 200, 224n, 233, 239n,
241 n, 253, 254n, 255n, 297n, 304,305,
308, 330n, 344.
Sutherland, C. H. V., 272n.
Swain, Joseph Ward, 242n, 273n.
Sweglerj 38.
Sweet, J. P. M., 26,41, 78n, 153, 162,
200,210,23 ln, 280n, 287.
Swete, Henry Barclay, 4,9, 12, 14, 17n,
23, 24, 30,43,48, 49n, 50, 56, 68n,
69,91,93,98, 101, 105n, 106n, 107n,
108n, 137n, 140, 141, 147, 150, 152,
161, 168, 169, 197n, 199,202, 206,
21 ln, 218, 223n, 224n, 260n, 276n,
287,300, 301n, 306n, 318,320,326,
327.
Tasker, R. V. G., 196n.
Taylor, Lily Ros, 264n.
Taylor, Vincent, 210n, 211 n.
Tenney, Merrill C., 43n, 72, 105n, 231n,
233n.
Terry, Milton S., 12, 18n, 19,20,26,29,
30, 38,42,64, 65, 114n, 115, 118,
122, 169,259, 279, 286n.
Thackery, St. John, 228n.
Thayer, Joseph Henry, 127n, 138, 140,
142, 194n.
Thiessen, Henry C., 43, 261n.
Thiersch, 38.
Theobald, Robert, 7n.
Thohsck, F. A. G., 38.
Tlllich, 38.
Tk.chendorf, Constantin, 197.
Torrance, Thomas F., 204.
Torrey, Charles Cutler, 38, 65n, 102,
102n, l15n, 120, 120, 151, 152, 166,
167, 182,200,209, 224n, 226n, 262,
324.
Trench, R. C., 320n, 328n.
Trout, John Moore, 323n.
Uhlho~ Gerhard, 23 in.
Unger, Merrill F., 17n.
Urwick, William, 31.
Van Antwerp, David D., 256n.
Vanderwaal, Cornelius, 38, 241n, 286n.
Vincent, Marvin R, 136, 140.
Vischer, 168.
Volkmar, Gustav, 38, 200, 304n.
394 BEFORE JERUSALEM FELL
Volter, 168.
Von Rad, G., 3n.
Vdhour, P., 3n.
Von Drey, 192n.
VOS, L.. A., 130n.
Wace, Henry, 58n, 106n.
Walker, Williston, 59, 211, 242n, 253n.
Wallace, Foy E., Jr., 35n, 38.
Walvoord, John F., 5n, 17n, 43n, 135,
141, 147, 153, 164n, 174, 316n.
Wartield, Benjamin B., 12, 23,43, 105n.
Warmington, E. H., 374.
Webber, Timothy P., 6.
Weigall, Arthur, 25,38, 74n, 152, 200,
213n, 216,217, 264n, 275n, 307n,
309n.
Weiseler, 297n.
Weiss, Bernhard, 32n, 38, 85n, 97n, 166,
209n, 308n, 31 in.
Weiss, J., 168.
Weizsacker, C. von, 168, 183.
Westcott, Brookes Fost, 23,38,60,91,
93, 117, 118,209, 256n.
Wetstein, J. J., 38,47,48, 51n, 241n.
Weyland, 168.
Weymouth, R. F., 137.
Whedan, 46.
Whisenant, Edgar C., 9.
Whittemore, Thomas, 239n.
Wiede, 168.
Wieseler, Karl, 38, 183.
W,lliams, Charles B., 137.
Williams, C. S. C., 168, 323n.
Wilson, Dwight, 7, 8n.
Wilson, Epiphanies, 38, 308n.
Wilson, R. M., 3n.
Wilson, William, 190n.
Windisch, H., 168.
Wood, Herbert George, 210n.
Woodward, Kenneth L., 6n.
Wordsworth, Charles, 38.
Workman, Herbert B., 38,96, 264n, 269n,
270n, 273n, 283n, 294, 296n.
Wright, G. Ernest, 23 in.
Wright, William, 71 n, 105n, 106n, 160n.
Young, Edward J., 17n.
Young, Robert, 38, 128, 141.
Zahn, Theodor, 27,86, 88n, 194, 323n.
Zeiller, Jacques, 296n.
Zeller, 200.
Zullig, C. F. J., 18n.
Zwaan, J. de, 168.
Zwingli, Uhich, 11.
ANCIENT AUTHORS INDEX
Africsmss, Julius, 352n.
Andreas of Cappadocia, 106-107, 109,
205,349.
Apollinius of Tyana, 70, 214, 267, 268.
Appian, 171, 213n.
Arethas, 54, 107-108, 109, 147, 335, 344,
349.
Aristophanes, 213n.
Augustine, 74,81, 100,303.
Aurelius, Marcus, 73, 77.
Barnabas, 157, 183, 184, 195, 225, 352n.
Caius, 60,94.
Cicero, Marcus Tullius, 149, 207, 265n.
Claudian, 149.
Clement of Alexandria, 42n, 43,44,68-
85,88,94,97-100, 103, 108-109, 190,
205,334-335,344,345, 351.
Clement of Rome, 78, 86,91, 102, 176-
181, 290,295.
Cyprian, 126,352.
Dio Cassius, 71, 74, 75n, 155, 265n,
273,275, 289, 303,309, 321n.
Dio Chrysostom, 74,80,215, 265n, 303.
Dorotheus, 44, 108n.
Epictetus, 71, 73.
Epiphanies, 42n, 44, 54, 100, 104-105,
109, 244, 335, reth344.
Eusebius, 42n, 43,44,46, 51n, 52n, 53,
58n, 61-63,65,66, 78, 79n, 82,88,
92,95, 100, 101-104, 108, 109, 197n.
Placcus, Aulus Persius, 71.
Harmatolus, Georgius, 92.
Hegissiupus, 190.
Hermas, 61,86-92, 109, 178, 212n, 335,
344.
Herodian, 71.
Hippolytus, 60, 104, 126, 205, 206n.
Horace, 149.
Ignatius, 102, 125, 184, 212n, 223n, 225.
Irenaeus (Sea Subject Index).
Jerome, 11,43,44, 46n, 54,65,66,80,
81,88,95-97, 103-105, 109, 150,303.
John the Apostle (Seti Subject Index).
Josephus, Flavius, 130n, 138, 143, 155,
161, 171, 172,211, 212n, 213n, 222n,
228n, 235,242-246,248-252, 270,
280n, 281n, 282,298, 312n, 313, 314.
Julianus, Antonius, 228n.
Juvenal, 70,71,82, 211n, 288n.
hCkUltiUS, 79, 80,81, 126, 191, 214,
265n, 288n, 303.
Livy, 280n.
Lucan, Marcus Annaeus, 71.
Martial, Marcus Valerius, 71, 72n, 73,
82, 149, 160, 222n.
Martyr, Justin, 125, 184-185, 222n, 223n,
225.
Melito of Sardis, 190,288.
Origen, 43,53,67,69,43,85,88, 97-99,
109,242,334-335,344, 345,350, 352n.
Orosius, Paulus, 82, 83n, 291, 298, 319n.
Ovid, 149,207.
395
396 BEFORE JERUSALEM FELL
Papias (Seti Subject Index).
Paul the Apostle (See Subject Index).
Patriarch, Nicephorus, 158.
Philo, 21 ln, 213n, 267, 280n, 282n.
Philostratus, 70n, 214n.
Photius,54, 100.
Pliny the Elder, 69, 70n, 71, 149, 171.
Pliny the Younger, 279n, 293n, 297,298.
Polycarp (See Subject Index).
Polycarpus, 106.
Properties, 149.
Seneca, 160, 207n, 271.
Severus, Sulpicius, 43n, 44, 79, 80,81,
160, 227n, 228n, 291, 296n, 298,303.
Statius, 71, 73, 149.
Strabo, 211, 321n.
Suetonius, 70, 71, 74, 75n, 149n, 153,
155, 159n, 161, 195, 213, 215,217,
265n, 266,267, 269n, 270, 272, 281n,
292,293, 305, 306,307, 309n, 311,
314.
Suidas, 46n, 84n.
Syncellus, Georgius, 158.
Tacitus, 70, 71, 74, 75, 78n, 96, 144n,
154, 161, 171, 180, 211n, 213,215,
216, 222n, 227n, 228n, 266,270, 272n,
279,280, 284n, 292,293,295,296,
297,298,306,307,312, 313,319,321.
Tatius, Achilles 213n.
Tertullian, 42n, 46n, 54, 78,81,82,88,
89,94-97,99, 109, 126, 143n, 149,
191, 196, 218, 222n, 223n, 290,291,
335,344.
Theophilus, 158.
Theophylact, 43n, 44, 54, 108.
Thomas of Harkel, 106.
Tyconius, 197, 201.
Valens, Vettiua, 213n.
Victonnus, 43,44,65,99-100, 109, 205,
224n, 344.
Victor, Aurelius, 154.
Virgil, 149.
Vulcacius, 71.
Xiphihus, 303.
ZQnaras, 74,303.
SUBJECT INDEX
Abaddon, 210.
Abomination of desolation, 130, 190-191,
349,351.
About to, (See Revelation – expectation),
Abraham, 124, 188-189, 195,222, 225,
227,234.
Abyss, 146,247,302.
angel of, 247.
Agrippa (See also Herod), 293n.
Aggripina (mother of Nero), 216.
Ahenobarbus (father of Nero), 217.
Alexandria, 68, 69,97,98, 157n, 173,
270.
Alphabet(s), 157, 193-194, 195.
Altar, 97, 139, 165, 169, 174, 175, 214,
265,266,267,268,270, 272,274,280,
284,292, 350.
Amillennial(ist): Sea Millennial Views.
Angel(s), 134, 198,232, 236, 244, 248n,
320,328,
interpretation by, 146-149, 163.
Anthropology, 14n.
Antichrist, 8,46-47, 52,53,58, 79,80,
101, 107, 201n, 206,209.
Apocalypse (See: Revelation).
Apocalyptic, x, 3, 12, 14, 17, 25, 151,
153, 162, 163, 198,247, 276.
Apollo, 207,271-275.
Apologetic(s), 183, 191, 192.
Apostle(s), 22, 45n, 52,53,56,61,62,
63,64, 78,82,84,88,90,91,95, 101,
102, 106, 125, 144, 145, 179, 191, 227,
244,247,276,290,291, 322.
Arabia, 70.
Aramaic, 199, 209-210.
Archaeology, 149,92,235, 268, 273.
documentary evidence, 199, 235.
Archippus, 328.
Armageddon, 6, 7,210.
Artist, 271.
Asia, 45n, 54n, 61,62,63, 100, 103, 150,
160,211,266, 268, 269, 306, 320,324,
326,347.
Asia Minor, 24, 92,98, 115, 161, 211,
260, 261,267,279,287,3 18,321,328.
Assassin(ate), 145,215.
Astrology, 305.
At hand (See: Revelation – expectation),
Atheism, 249.
Athens, 272, 289.
Augustus (emperor), 74, 77,84, 154-159,
211,241,242,271,275, 280n, 302.
name used as oath, 267.
worship of, 262, 264, 266-269, 270, 273,
283.
Baalam, 329n, 330n.
Babylon, 17, 116, 187, 211, 241n, 296.
Bacchanalian Conspiracy, 280-281.
Banishment (See: John the Apostle
– banishment).
Beast (See ulso: Nero), 53n, 90-91, 116,
119n, 162, 218, 241n, 262,296.
appearance, 146, 201, 254, 276.
authority, 163.
character, 212-215, 254.
color, 217, 276.
deathlwound, 79, 217-218, 276.
generic, 204, 206, 254,277, 310-316.
heads, 119n, 146, 148, 149, 163-164,
206,213,254,276,301, 308,313-316.
horns, 146, 148,213,276.
397
398 BEFORE JERUSALEM FELL
identity, 73, 198,203,206,240,254,
277,291, 310-316,335,352.
image to, 218, 309.
missiono~ 254.
name, 198-212,215.
number of (See: Six hundred,
sixty-six).
revivification (See: Nero – legend
regarding).
specific, 204, 206, 254, 277, 310-316.
war of (See: Persecution – Neronic).
worship of (See: Emperor worship;
Nero – worship of).
wound (Seti Wound),
Beasts (wild animals) (See also Beast),
10, 70>77, 79,96-97, 160, 212, 214,
215,292,296.
Beheaded, 96, 99, 298.
Beliar, 74, 78,276.
Believer(s) (See al.m Christianity).
Bible (word of God; Scripture) (See al.ro:
Revelation), 7, 10, 11, 12, 15, 19,20,
62,64, 74,84,88,89,93, 101, 114,
128, 133, 136n, 159, 170, 184, 285,
320,333,346.
orthodox view o~ 5, 21, 113-114, 136n,
168.
present author's commitment to, 5, 14,
21-22, 113, 114, 169,333.
Biblical Introduction, xi, 4, 21, 113, 333.
Bishop, 45,52,55,57,62,83,90, 92,99,
101, 103, 104, 106,322.
of Rome, 86-90, 177, 178.
Blasphemy (+us), 146,221,254,268,270,
276,278.
Blood, 75,82,95,97, 124, 130, 146, 148,
184, 214, 217, 218, 240n, 291,299.
bridle depth, 76,244-245.
Bond-servant(s), 134,233.
Book of Mormon, 19.
Bottomless pit (Sea Abyss).
Bride, 241 n.
Britain, 180, 312.
Burning oil (Sea Oil).
Caesarean), (See also: individual
emperors), 72, 73, 99, 124, 152, 159,
199,214-215,230,236, 268,270.
Caesar, Julius (emperor), 154-159, 161,
254.
Father of His Country, 266.
Jews and, 155,281.
name used as oath, 266.
worship of, 159, 262-266, 284.
Caius (emperor), (See: Gaius).
Calendar, 6.
Caligula (Sea Gaius).
Canon, 4, 5, 11, 14, 21, 27,61,94, 106,
125, 135, 169, 170, 181, 182, 183,246,
325,334, 352n.
Catastrophe, 18,239.
Charioteer), 75, 195,265,271,272,284,
292.
Christ (See Jesus Christ).
Christian(s, -itY), 5, 7,25,56,68,77,
107, 113, 115, 141, 143, 159, 180, 181-
191,262,278,285, 293fi 319.
confused with Judaism by Remans,
144, 227-228, 229, 293-294.
crimes of (alleged), 77, 96-97, 213-
214,262,277,280-284, 292,293,
293n, 294,298.
history (See History – church).
Jewish origin, 144, 167-168, 174, 181,
198, 220-256, 235,243, 329, 330n.
literature, x, 44,80, 181-191, 255, 336.
separation from Judaism, 144, 225-231,
329n.
Chronicles, 56.
Chronology, 13,27,61, 116, 119, 140,
146, 151, 152, 163, 165,264,299, 310,
315,335,341.
Church (local congregation):
at Jerusalem, 174, 226.
at Rome, 87, 119, 290.
churches (See al.m Seven – churches),
52,67,83, 103, 124, 140, 318.
Church (universal), 15, 16,52, 57,59,
62,80,82,90, 115, 127, 143, 167, 169,
170n, 174, 179,218,230, 262.
history (Sea History – church).
unity, 52.
Subject Ihx 399
Circumcision, 212,222,225, 227.
Circus, 283, 292.
Civil war (See: Rome – civil waG Jewish
War).
Classics/classical, 25,60, 104, 154.
Claudius (emperor), 18n, 158, 178, 216,
267,306.
another name for Nero, 104-105.
banishes Jews from Rome, 293, 293n.
worship of, 270-271.
Ckm.eatia Ccu.sank.
Cloud(s), 121, 122, 128, 130, 170.
Codex Sinaiticus, 88.
Coin(s), 149, 170,235, 272, 273,274.
Coming of Christ (See: Jesus
Christ – coming).
Commodus (emperor), 73, 77, 160.
Conquer/conqueror, 23n, 76.
Conservative (Ste: Orthodox).
Constantine (emperor), 101.
Copies (Seti Manuscripts; Texts).
Corinth, 327-328.
Covenant (See also New Covenant; Old
Covenant), 142, 189, 339.
cume of, 143-144, 171, 212n, 249.
Crimes (Sea Christians – crimes of).
Critic(s) (See ah Higher criticism; Text
– criticism), 21, 27n, 28, 60, 65, 114,
115, 156, 167,202.
Crown(s), 95, 134.
Crucifixion (See Jesus Christ –
crucifixion).
Cryptic, 157, 193n.
Cryptogram (See: Gematria).
Cuh(ic), 238,256, 261ff, 272,279.
Culture, 280, 293n, 335,337.
progress o~ 7, 336.
Curse, 123.
Date of Revelation (Sea Revelation, date
00.
Day of the Lord (See ako Tribulation),
234.
Decapitated (See: Beheaded).
Decius (emperor), 80.
Demas, 328.
Demon(s) (See ah: Jerusalem – demons
and), 10, 198, 247, 248, 305n.
Destruction (Sea Temple – destruction ofj
Jerusalem – destruction of),
Dtil (See also: Satan), 210, 222n, 249.
Devils (Sea Demons).
Diadem, 273,276.
Diaspora (Jewish dispesxion), 186, 211.
Disciple(s), 22, 207.
Dispensationalism (S'm Millennial views).
Divorce of Israel, 241n, 350.
Document(s), 16, 19,27,47,58-59,94,
199, 238, 287, 289, 290.
Domitian (emperor), 18,20, 26,28,44,
47,50,52,53, 56,57,60,61,65, 73,
79,85,98,99, 100, 109, 116, 132, 144,
160,215,247,259,259, 271,285, 288n,
296,300,323,327,334, 343,348.
as second Nero, 73, 82, 288.
death of, 145, 180,218.
Nero Domitius, 48n-49n, 70, 104.
persecution of (Se.z Persecution
– Domitianic).
pre-imperial authority, 66.
worship o~ 262, 264, 267, 278-279, 283n.
Drama, 3,8,81, 118, 133, 134n, 142.
Dragon, 276.
Eagle, 313n.
Earth (See also Land; World), 76, 128,
141, 146, i56, 157, 162,218, 235,241,
244,302.
Earthquake, 170n, 188,319-322, 348.
Early-date (See Revelation, date o~.
Editor, 167-168, 189.
Egypt, 162, 170, 175, 188, 236, 264, 322,
330n.
Eight, significance o~ 316n.
Eight hundred, eighty-eight (See Jesus
Christ – number ofj Numbers
– symbolic use o~.
Eighth head of Beast (Sse al.nx Kings
– eighth king).
Elder(s), 52, 56,61,63,89, 94, 178.
Emblem(s) (See Symbol).
Emperors (See individual names; Sea
400 BEFORE JERUSALEM FELL
Rome – emperors).
Emperor worship (Sa also: Jesus Christ –
emperor worship and), 75, 159, 207,
261-284,348.
origin of, 262-266, 267, 270.
political purpose o~ 264-265, 267, 311.
priesthood, 267,268,269.
principle argument for late-date, 259,
261-284.
Endurance (SeC Perseverance).
Ephesus (See alsa Seven – churches), 54n,
103, 265,272,324, 325,326.
church in, 326-329.
John in, 57,68,83,96,100,103, 106.
late-date evidence regarding.
Episcopate (See alm Bishop), 89, 178.
Eschatology (See ulso World – end of),
5, 6, 7,21, 74, 336, 341.
optimistic, 336-337, 341.
pessimistic, 5n, 6n, 336-337.
Essenes, 221.
Euthanas, 206.
Evangelical (S'eZ Orthodoxy).
Exegesis, x, 12, 108, 109, 196, 239n.
Exile (..% John the Apostle
– banishment).
Eye-witness, 62,64, 102, 119, 236.
Fable, 42.
Faith, 5, 10,82,97, 218, 230, 254,277,
285,291,298, 299.
declining, 326-329.
Famine, 243, 249.
Fate, 273.
Fire/fiery, 74, 76,96, 117, 180, 188, 189,
234,236,241,280,292, 296,326.
Five months, 247-250.
Flavian family/emperors, 72, 161.
Florus, Gessius, 250.
Form criticism (Sea Higher Criticism).
Forty-two months, 165, 174, 176,250-
255,276,277.
Fortune, 252, 273.
Fragment hypothesis (See: Higher
Criticism).
Future (See alsm Eschatology; Prophecy),
5, 6n, 8, 19, 21,25, 119, 135, 175,
218n, 236,268,298,312,336, 348,
349.
futurology, 7.
Futurist (school of interpretation), 135,
139, 150, 153, 173, 201n, 207, 287n,
340,348.
Gaius Cd@a (emperor), 70, 73, 77,
155, 158, 160,271,277.
worship of, 269-270, 273, 283n.
Galba (emperor), 144, 153, 157, 158, 160,
161, 191, 254,306,308, 312,313,351,
352.
Gallus, Cestius, 250-252.
Garnaliel II, 226.
Gematria (cryptogram) (See aka Alphabet;
Numbers), 193-212,254.
Genius, 267, 281, 293n.
Gentile(s), 68,83, 157n, 165, 167, 176,
204,209,226, 227n.
Geography, 153, 162, 170, 211,253.
God, 3,5, 6n, 7, 10, 14,21,23,62, 74,
78,80,90,99, 101, 123, 124, 125, 134,
144, 162, 163, 173, 186, 195,232,2 41n,
244, 253,291, 293n, 322, 334.
His time perspective, 136-137, 140.
God(s) (false) (See ULXX individual names),
206-207, 262,265-284, 292, 293n, 312.
Gold (See also: Wealth), 186,326.
Golden House, 272.
Gospel (a message), 52, 106, 324.
Gospel (a NT book), 12,22,23,63, 104,
114, 115, 117, 124, 130, 176, 182,209,
242n, 327, 343,350.
Grammatim-historical (Sea
Hermeneutics).
Great Commission, 221.
Great Revolt (Sea Jewish War).
Great Tribulation (Sea Day of the Lord;
Tribulation).
Greece, 274-275.
Greek (language), 46,49,52,53,55,56,
58,59,68, 115, 117, 118, 128, 138, 194,
195, 197, 198,204,209-212,215, 222n,
241,268,315-316, 322n, 3291-1,346.
Subject Index 401
Hail(stones), 245-246.
Hadrian (emperor), 77.
Harlot (See also: Woman), 8, 147, 240n,
241n.
harlot's garments, 217.
Heads (See: Beast – heads).
Heaven (ly), 5n, 72,254, 276.
heaven and earth, 80, 162.
Hebrews (.%-a Jews).
Hebrew (language), 182, 194, 198, 199,
200, 203, 209-212, 224-225, 329n.
Helios, 273.
Herod, 99, 169,233, 235,236, 237.
Hercules, 272.
Heresy/Heretics, 84, 115.
Hermeneutics (See aZso: Revelation
– interpretation), 10, 15, 16, 19-20,
29,51, 117, 119, 121, 133, 145, 146-
149, 162-163, 164, 174, 196, 311, 323-
324, 352n.
High priest (See: Priest –Jewish).
Higher criticism (See also Critic), 151,
167-169, 210, 238, 300.
Historicist (school of interpretation), 15.
History, 5n, 6, 19,52,60, 123, 144, 153,
162, 163, 170, 180, 245, 335.
Christian view of 6-8, 336-337.
Church, 4,6, 7, 11, 12, 13, 16,21, 55,
59-60,65,67,88,97, 101, 127, 136,
138, 181-191, 209>285, 288, 326, 333,
335,347.
Rome/Roman Empire, x, 56, 75,96-
97, 102, 157n, 160-161, 171, 180,
265,267,270,280,311-316, 333.
Holocaust, 174, 234.
Holy Land (Sea Land, the).
Holy City (,.$e~ Jerusalem – Holy City).
Holy Spirit, 23n, 68,83, 130, 146, 178,
221,351.
Homosexual, 70, 213.
Horns (Sea Beast – horns).
Horse(men), 10,83, 103,241,243.
Human race (Sea Man/mankind).
Hypothesis, 109.
Idealist (view of prophecy), 25.
Idolatry, 270, 273,277, 281,302, 309.
Images (See Idolatry; Beast – image).
Imminence (,%x Revelation –
expectation).
India, 70.
Inerrancy, 5,22.
Inspiration (See af.ro: Bible – orthodox
view) 5, 14, 61, 88, 136n, 221.
Interregnum (See also: Year of Four
Emperors), 153, 160-162, 180,
314-315.
Irenaeus (See alsa Ancient Writers
Index), 3n, 26, 28,43,45, 67,85,89,
94,97,98.
ambiguity in, 47-48, 55, 67, 334,
345-346.
authority, 45, 59-63, 65, 67.
Christ's age and, 63-64, 334, 347.
errors/contradictions, 56, 58-59, 61,
63-64,334.
John the Apostle and, 57,67, 102,
206,334.
life of, 45,60-62.
Polycar-p and (See also: Polycarp),
45-46,60-62.
premillennialist, 207-208.
re-interpretation, 47-57, 61, 94, 108,
334,345-346.
Revelation and, 45-47,60, 118n, 197,
206,334,343-347.
six hundred, sixty-six (See: Six
hundred, sixty-six).
style, 49, 52, 55, 209-212.
text, 46-47, 55.
time reference, 57-58.
tradition and, 41, 43-44, 46, 64-66, 88,
101, 102.
works, 45-46, 49, 57, 62, 101.
Israel (See alxx Palestine; Judea; Land),
16, 124, 127, 128, 174, 175, 181, 183,
185, 186, 187, 228, 232,240,248, 250,
314,322.
Church as Israel (Seti New Israel;
Temple – spiritual).
civil war in, 242, 243.
league with Israel, (Sea Rome - Israel and).
402 BEFORE JERUSALEM FELL
James the Apostle, 102.
death o~ 99.
James theJust, 190,350.
Jerusalem, 91,115, 119,130, 161, 165,
169-176,217,221, 225, 240ss, 241n,
270,281,305.
Christian church in, 174,226,244.
Christians escape from, 243-244.
Christians sell pro~ty in, 234-235.
demons and, 247-248.
destruction/fdl, 15,20,26,28,60, 106,
107, 118, 119, 130, 143, 144, 165, 166,
167, 171, 173, 175, 180, 181-191,226,
229,230,234,235-238, 240,249,253,
275,291, 296n, 313,339,342,
348-352.
fame, 170-173,237. $
Holy City, 135n, 165, 169-170,226,
238,250,351.
Temple at (sea Temple –Jewish).
Th.s'sie geo~107,169n, 187,235-
238,248-250,252,313, 350.
Jesus Christ, 5n, 15, 19,22, 23n, 117,
134, 146, 169,234,274,278,333, 350.
age at death (.%x Irenaeus– Christ
and).
ascension, 108, 190, 191, 249.
baptism, 63.
coming, 8,9, 25, 121, 122, 123, 128,
130, 131, 134, 139-140, 142, 144,
170, 184, 191,207,238,330.
crucifixion, 63, 95, 123-127, 170, 184,
185, 189, 190, 191,236,
emperor worship and, 269.
Irenaeus on (Sea Irenaeus – on
Christ).
Jews and, 107, 123-127,130, 170, 175,
181-191.
number o~ 195, 204, 208.
pierced, 121, 123, 128, 130, 130, 143,
170.
resurrection, 191, 230, 316n.
suffering, 63, 107.
Jew(s) (See ah: Judaism), 17,56,74,75,
77,92, 100, 107, 130, 143, 145, 155,
169n, 170, 171, 182, 186, 188, 190,
246,251,270,277, 293, 293n, 314,
350,352.
Domitian and, 160.
persecution of Chnstisns (.!%
Persecution –Jewish).
population, 115, 130, 143,211,237.
responsibility for crucifixion (i!%:
Jesus Christ –Jews).
rnbes (Sse Tribes –Jewish).
Jewish Revolt of A.D. 70 (See Jewish
War).
Jewish War, 18, 107, 115, 131-132, 143,
161, 170>180, 187, 188,230,232-256,
271,275,282,282-283, 312,313>329,
335, 351n.
Jewish Tax (didrachma), 145.
John of Gischala, 172.
John the Apostle, 83,92, 155.
age, 54,56-57,64,83-85, 83n, 92,96,
103, 117.
author of Revelation, 5n, 15, 22-23,
24n, 27,46,53,54,58,61,63, 84-
85,92-94, 103, 127, 133, 150, 176,
181, 193, 198,204, 212,234,256>
269,285, 310n, 315,335,344.
banishment of, 42,44,54,61,65,68,
69,95,96,98,99, 103, 104, 105,
106, 108, 109,286,335,345.
chasing a heretic on horseback, 83-85,
103.
Domitian and, 99, 100-101, 103, 107-
109.
Greek language and, 23n.
labor in mines, 96,99-100.
martyrdom by Jews, 92-93.
ministry, 57, 68, 83, 96, 100, 103, 106,
329.
Nero and, 68, 104, 106, 109.
persecution with Peter and Paul, 95-97.
Polycarp and (Sea Polycarp –John
and).
Rome and, 95,97.
two persecutions/banishments of, 67,
KM, 109.
weakness in old age, 103.
writings, 101, 102, 104, 131.
Subject Index 403
John the Baptist, 234.
Jordan River, 245.
Judaism (See also Christianity –Jewish
background; Jews), 144, 167, 173, 181,
184, 189, 221,223,225>227, 229,235,
289,293,294, 329n.
Judaizers, 115,
Judas, 81.
Judea (See aim: Palestine; Land, the), 119,
124, 128, 143, 176, 184, 227, 233,240,
244,251,314,351.
judgment(s), 123, 130, 147, 174, 186, 188,
191, 238, 240,244, 251,336.
Julio-Claudian line of emperors, 73,99,
155-157,237.
cessation of, 311, 314-315.
Julius Caesar (See: Caesar, Julius).
Jupiter, 145,265,267,269.
fig(s), 76,80,97,98, 106, 156, 157,
159, 160, 162, 170, 172, 273, 351.
eighth king, 302, 308, 310-316.
Julian emperors as, 71,72,99, 124,
154, 159-160,276.
seven kings, 146, 149, 151-159, 161,
164, 193,264, 310-316,335.
sixth king, 118, 146-164, 193, 308, 310-
316,352.
Kingdom, 153, 156, 163-164, 186, 206,
310,314.
of Christ/God, 127, 174, 207, 248n.
of Satan, 248n.
Iamb, 148, 254, 276.
Land, the (See aho: Israel; Jude% Palestine),
115, 128-131, 232-238, 240, 282.
Laodicea, 319-322, 326-329, 348.
Last days (,%: Latter Days).
Lateinos, 206.
Late-date (See: Revelation, date of).
Latter days (Last days), 135, 184, 207.
Latin, 11,46,49,54,94, 105, 195, 197n,
203.
Law(s), 6n, 184.
Legend (,% Nero – Legend).
Legion(s) (See: Rome – legions).
Liberal, 7, 17, 18, 24-28, 145, 151, 166n,
167, 182, 210, 315,320.
Literal(ism) (See also: Herrneneuties;
Revelation – interpretation), 10-11,
15, 164n, 174, 175.
Locust(s), 10,91,247.
LXX (See: Septuagint).
Maccabee(s) (can), 17, 222n.
Magic, 13, 216.
Man/mankind (humanity), 5n, 70,81,
143, 172, 185,237,268,280,281, 293n,
312.
Man of sin, 80.
Manuscript(s) (See alsm Texts), ix, 44,
51,58-59,93-94, 196-197, 198,202.
Marcus Aurelius (emperor), 73, 77, 160,
288n.
Mark, 22, 210.
Marquis de Sade, 73.
Mars, 272.
Martyrdom) (See aho specific names of
martyrs, e.g., James, Paul), 42, 62, 80,
95,96,98, 105, 190,218.
Masada, 282.
Megiddo, 130.
Millennial views:
amillennial, 136.
dispensational, 5, 6n, 7, 10, 135, 147,
164n, 173, 174, 201n, 316n, 339ff,
352n.
postmillennial, 136, 339-342.
premillennial (See also: Irenaeus –
premillennialism of), 60, 135, 136,
175, 205n, 341, 352n.
Millennium (See Thousand; Millennial
views).
Mishna, 173.
Mithras, 273.
Mcmn, 74, 76.
Moses, 130.
Mourn (See aho: Weep), 121, 123, 130.
Mountain (See also: Seven – mountains),
74, 170.
Muratorian Canon, 60,87,88,93-94,
109, 335, 344.
BEFORE JERUSALEM FELL
Music, 273.
Mystery, 11, 105, 146, 148.
Mystery of iniquity, 80.
Mythology), 14,25, 302n, 303, 304,306,
315.
Nation(s), 6, 71n, 128, 143, 148, 165,
171, 174, 175, 176, 180, 184,222, 233,
242,249,250, 253n, 276.
Nazarene, 226,228.
Neapditanus, 250.
Near, (Sea Revelation – expectation).
Nero (emperor) (See alm Beast), 15, 18,
26,28, 73, 79,84-85,99, 106, 108,
116, 132, 153, 167, 193-219, 230,240,
270,293,294,335,352.
adoptive name, 104.
Apollo fascination of, 271-275.
appearance, 217.
beast (See Beast).
birth/childhood, 215-216,217.
burning of Rome and (Sm Rome –
burning ofl.
character, 69-83, 160, 172, 195, 198,
209,212-215,275,305.
death, 23,50,55,60, 74, 77,80, 144,
219,241,242,254-255, 295,300,
302,305>306,311,313, 316,326.
emperor, 77, 158, 160, 164, 199, 251,
252,274,288,296,299, 306,327,
335,347,350.
family, 69-70, 75, 78,213,216,217,
272.
god, 75, 77, 78, 207.
John and, 54,99, 104.
legend regarding (Reditivw), 74-77,
218,260,300-317.
life, 69ff,271 K 306.
Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus.
matricide, 70, 73, 75, 76, 78, 195, 213,
214,276.
pretender, 75-76, 180.
Rediuirnss (Sea Nero – legend
regarding).
Quinquennisun Nenmi.s, 271.
revival (See al.ra Nero – Legend
regarding).
worship of, 264, 270-284.
Nerva, 56, 77, 160.
New Covenant (.SW al.ro: Covenant), 143,
174,230.
New Israel, 181,221, 223, 227, 230.
New Testamen~ x, 4, 11, 13, 14, 17, 18,
21,22,24,64,66, 106, 114, 119, 123,
125, 127, 155, 166, 170, 173, 178, 182,
183,203,209,210, 226n, 227n, 234,
288,324,327,333.
dating of, 20,25,27-29, 166-167, 181,
182,287,341.
Nkolaitan(s), 61, 329n, 330n.
Number(s) (See a.1.ox Alphabeq
Gematri~ 8ix hundred, sixty-six), 10,
163, 193-196,204,215,224, 233,254.
Oath, 266,267.
Occult, 216.
Octavian (See: Augustus).
Offerings, 176,350.
Oil (burning oil), 54,95,96-97, 105.
Old Covenant (See also: Covenant), 144,
174.
Old Testamen\ 14n, 17,29, 117, 123,
170, 185, 196,220.
Olivet @cmn_se, 135n, 175,233, 349.
omitted in John's Gospel, 130-131, 242,
242n.
Olympian, 267,269,275.
Omen, 306.
One hundred, forty-four thousand, 163,
174n, 232.
One thousand (Sea Thousand).
Ortlmcloxy, 5,7, 17, 18,21, 23n, 24,26,
27, 28,59,60, 113, 114, 133, 136n,
142, 145, 168, 182n, 210, 226n, 238,
245,288,302,315,320, 333.
Otho (emperor), 119n, 144, 153, 157,
158, 160, 161, 191, 315,351.
admiration of Nero, 308-309.
Palace/castle, 61, 70, 72,218,274.
Palestine, 101, 155,211, 226n, 235, 237,
252.
Sulject Index 405
rabbis regarding, 128-130.
Papias, 60,61, 90-93, 109,335,344.
John and, 63, 92n, 102, 103.
Polycarp and, 63, 102.
Parthia(ns), 75, 180, 307,312.
Passover, 125, 140.
Patmos, 42, 53, 68,69,83,95-96,98-101,
105, 106, 107, 109, 218n, 270, 286,
335.
Paul the Apostle, 27,83,84,86,94, 102,
115, 117, 144, 178, 179, 227, 229, 291,
305n, 322,326,327-328.
imprisonment, 274, 294, 325-326.
martyrdom, 83, 95-97, 103-104, 179,
218, 255,290,298,322,324.
the aged, 84.
Pax Ronsanu, 241-242, 268,280.
Peace (See Pax Rornam).
Pella, 244.
Pentateuch, 24.
Pergamum, 266, 278.
Persecution of Christianity (See also:
Christians, crimes ofl, 15,24-25,28,
79-80,95, 144, 163, 238, 240, 352n.
Domitianic, 3n, 81-83, 100, 101, 145,
180,260,278,280, 287-289,302,
318,347.
Jewish, 92, 115, 175, 187,226, 227n,
239, 240n, 285, 296n.
late-date argument and, 260, 285-287,
348.
Neronic, 18, 77-83,95,96, 119, 145,
150, 177, 179-180, 209,213,240,
254,256, 260, 264n, 271,276-284,
285-299, 305n, 318,328, 329, 330,
335,347.
Neronic geographical extent, 78,82,
297-298.
Neronic legality of, 277-278,281-284,
294-298, 296n.
Neronic temporal length, 15,80, 144,
254-255,277,294-295.
Persia, 75.
Pertinax (emperor), 160.
Pessimism (Sea eschatology –
pessimistic).
Peter the Apostle, 22,83, 84,95-97, 102,
103-104, 144, 179, 191,234,255,290,
291,298.
Pharisees, 130, 226n, 234, 305n.
Philadelphia, 222.
Philosophy (-er), 73, nero
Phoenix, 178.
Pierced (See: Jesus Christ – pierced).
Pilate, 124, 159, 160.
Politics, 159, 189,209, 237, 267,272,
273,274,280,282,303, 307.
Polycarp:
age of, 100.
Irenaeus and (Sea Irenaeus).
John and, 46,57,62-63, 102,322.
Papias and, 61,92, 102, 103.
Smymaen Church and, 57, 322-326.
Polytheism, 267.
Pompeii, 194.
Pompcy, 281.
Pontius Pilate, 281 n.
Pope, 81,87, 105, 178.
Poppaea (wife of Nero), 272,274.
Premillennialist) (See millennial views).
Presbyter(s) (see: Elder).
Presuppositions, 21, 113, 339.
Pretenst (school of interpretation), 25,
26,27, 145, 150,239-240,339-343,
348-352.
Priest, 87, 174.
Jewish, 159, 176,217,282.
pagan, 266,267, 268, 269,309,312.
Pnncipate/Princeps, 73, 160,311.
Prophecy(-ties), 6, 12,22,25,47,79,93,
104, 107, 115, 133, 134, 137, 140, 142,
161, 162, 166, 169, 174, 175, 184, 186,
191, 238,277, 348,349,350,352.
fidfllment of, 20-21, 134, 151,205,
234,242,244,246,247, 248,249,
250,253,316,339,349, 351.
pagan, 74, 76, 156,312,313.
Prophet(s) (seer), 22n, 53,88, 105, 124,
130, 134, 182, 183, 239, 306.
Prophetic, 3, 7, 14, 15, 17, 19, 20, 118,
130, 136, 147, 174.
Prophetic movement, 6, 7.
406 BEFORE JERUSALEM FELL
Province(s), 82, 144, 160, 161,235,266,
267,268, 297,302,308,312,314.
Psychology> 5, 116, 313, 335.
Pseudepigrapha, 188-189, 313n.
Pseudo-Nero (See: Nero – pretender).
Quickly (See Revelation – expectation).
Quinquennium Neronis (Sti: Nero).
Quirinius, 265,266.
Qumran, 199,238.
Rabbinical writings, 196, 198.
Rabbis, 128-130, 173.
Rapture, 6,201 n.
Rebellw trium @-inci@m, 75.
Red, 217.
Nero's beard, 217.
Redemption/redemptive, 16, 143.
Redioium (Sea Nero – legend).
Religio illicitu, 297.
Religio ltitu, 228n, 294.
Repent, 134.
Resurrection (Sea Jesus Christ –
resurrection).
Revelation of God, 3,5,88, 135n, 161,
168, 305.
cessation ofl 84-85.
Clement of Rome and, 84-85.
Shejhrd of Hermo.r as, 88.
Revelation, Book of, 3,5,66, 79, 100,
101, 142, 334,340,352.
audience (original), 15, 16, 133, 151,
154, 162, 164, 203,209, 212, 284,
316,335.
author (Sea John the Apostle).
canonicity, 4, 5, 11, 21-22, 24.
circulation, 4, 91.
commentaries (ancient), 4, 106, 107,
349.
commentaries (modem), 10, 11, 13,
15, 18, 21, 23n, 26, 114, 147, 254,
286,310,342.
date of (Sea Revelation, Date ofJ.
difficulty, 10-16, 147.
expectation, 115, 133-145, 151, 164,
165, 239n, 240,330,340.
genre, 3n, 14, 167.
grammar, 23n, 115, 117, 118.
history of, 4,90-92, 195-196.
influenee on early literature, 90-92.
inspiration, 3-4, 5, 14, 24, 29, 161,
169, 246, 305n.
interest in, 4-10, 193n, 336.
interpretation, 4, 5, 9, 10-16, 20, 60,
119>146-149, 162-163, 165.
Jewish flavor, 209-212,220-231, 330n.
manuscripts (ancient), 51, 196-197,
201-202.
purpose, 9, 15, 118.
relevance, 15, 16, 20, 25, 133, 139-141,
151, 154, 157, 163, 206, 233n,
239n, 240, 316.
spiritual significance, 5.
style, 14, 81, 117, 118, 209-212.
theme, 121-132, 337.
unity, 23, 27n, 161, 167-168.
Revelation, Date of, xi, 9, 17-337,343-
353.
early-date advocates, ix, 30-39, 55, 118,
119, 167.
earlydate evidence, 29-38, 59,84-85,
90-92,93-94,95-97,98-99, 104-
105, 108-109, 113-260, 271-284,312,
316,319-330>334-336.
late-date advocates, x, 20,25-26,28,60,
67, 119, 120, 259n-260n, 284, 285,
295,300-301,303-304, 318-319,344.
late-date evidence, 45-47, 66,83,85,
97-98,99-100, 101-102, 105,259-330.
objections to early-date, 45-47, 96, 167-
168, 259-330.
practical matter, 336-337.
specific date, 336.
Riddle, 198.
Robe(s), 148, 184.
Roma (goddess), 265,267.
Roman Empire (See Rome – empire).
Roman numerals, 194.
Rome(-ans), 123-124, 155,238,242,281.
burning o~ 71, 180, 195,241,279-280,
283, 291, 292, 293n, 312, 319n.
church at, 86-90, 177, 178,210.
Subject Index 407
city, 66, 72, 75, 77, 82, 91, 94, 95, 100,
101, 119, 149, 150, 152, 164, 171,
178, 187, 253n, 254,266, 272,275,
290,299.
civil war, 19, 116, 144, 161, 180, 240,
242,244,311-314,330, 335.
emperor(s), 18, 56, 67,69, 77,96, 97,
100, 144, 152, 154-159, 161, 163,
186, 217,235,242, 253n, 254,277,
302,308.
empire, 15, 100, 116, 132, 143, 145,
150, 154, 162,206, 210, 230,241-
242,252,270, 280n, 296.
fall OS 25, 141, 240.
league with Israel, 155, 241 n, 281.
Iegions, 236-238, 248.
law against associations in.
penology, 101, 123n, 160, 227n, 285,
291.
revival after civil war, 313-316.
Senate, 70, 73, 144, 265,266,269,
272,302,314.
senator(s), 72, 213, 275.
Romulus, 265.
Sacrifice(s, -cd), 78,97, 143, 176,266,
272,273,276,280>282, 284,292,309.
Jewish for Rome, 250n, 281-282.
Sadducees, 234.
Saint(s), 11, 118,218, 240n, 254,276,
277,285.
Sanctification, 333.
Sardis, 326-329.
Satan (See af.m devil), 201,210, 215, 222,
225,247.
Savior, 268, 272, 274,350.
Scorpion(s), 248.
Scripture (See: Bible).
Sea (ocean), 74, 75, 213,232,283.
Seal(s) (noun), 107,232,241,243.
Seal (verb), 135n, 140,232,236.
Sebastos (sebaatenoi), 74,272.
Second Advent/Coming (.%x Jesus
Christ – coming).
Seer (Sea Prophet).
Semitic (Saz Hebrew language).
Senate of Rome (See: Rome – senate).
Seneca, 271.
Sensationalism, 7,8.
Septimus Severus (emperor), 77.
Septimontium, 149.
Septuagint (LXX), 61, 118, 138.
Serpent (See snake).
Seven, 23n, 153, 162, 163, 209, 253.
churches (See akx individtial entries),
15,94, 100, 115, 118, 122, 139,
150, 153, 162,222,260,318-330.
cities of Revelation (See individual
entries).
heads (Seti Beast – heads).
kings (Sax Khqgs – seven).
letters, 212,269,318-330, 348.
mountains/hills, 146, 149-151, 164,
254.
Seven hundred, seventy-seven, 204.
Seventy weeks of Daniel, 135n.
Shortly (Sea Revelation –
expectation).
Sin, 135n, 235.
Sinaiticus (Sea Codex Sinaiticus).
Sion (See: Zion).
SitZ im L-hen, 139,220, 230.
Six, 204,208.
Six hundred, sixteen (See aho: numbers
– symbolic use of), 196-198.
Six hundred, sixty-six (See al.w numbers
– symbolic use of), 193-212.
impossibility of interpretation, 203n,
205.
Irenaeus on, 46-47,51, 197,203,
205-208.
Nero theory o~ 198-201, 215,217,218,
310-316,352.
Nero theory objections, 203-212.
Sixth king (Se@ Kngs – sixth king).
Slaughter, 188.
Slave(rY), 89, 235, 266n, 307,312.
Smyma, 223,267,269.
church in, 45n, 57,62, 222, 348.
founding of church in, 322-326.
late-date argument regarding,
322-323.
408 BEFORE JERUSALEM FELL
Snake(s) (viper), 75,77,130,195,234.
Nero bracelet, 215-216.
Social, 6n, 339.
Sodom, 162, 170, 175, 236, 249, 330n.
Sodomy (Sea homosexual).
Son of perdition, 80.
Soon (See Revelation – expectation).
Soul(s) (spirit),84, 134.
Spain, 144,309.
Spirit (See: Holy Spiriq Soul).
Standards, Roman military, 238,281.
Stephen, 124.
Stoning, punishment by, 123n.
Suicide, 72,80, 144,241.
Sun god, 206-207,272,275,284.
Supernaturalism, -istic), 26, 115, 168,
238.
Superstition, 216,274,279,280,292, 293,
305,306,311.
Sword, 78,82, 134, 176, 217,218,241,
298,302,310.
Symbols (emblems, imagery), 11, 12,91,
117, 118, 123, 125, 134n, 147, 148,
149, 153, 162-163, 169, 170, 173, 174,
175, 184,204,208, 212n, 224,238,
239,247,253,273,282, 308.
Synagogue(s), 130,223,225,227,230.
of Satan, 222.
Syria, 188,21 In, 250, 251,283,307.
Syriac, 44,54, 71, 105-106, 109,344.
Talmud, 173, 198, 303.
Teitan, 206.
Temple, 115, 119, 125, 130, 165-192,
21 ln, 217,221, 225, 256,264, 270,
277,335,343,352.
destruction ofJewish, 16, 19,20,21,
45, 130, 135nj 143, 144, 168, 173,
174, 175, 181-191, 225,227-228,233-
234,236,237,240,242, 244,2443,.
250,252,294,329,330, 335,351.
fame ofJewish, 228.
pagan, 72, 145, 180, 238, 264-271,272,
275.
spiritual, 174-176, 221.
structure ofJewish, 174-175, 228, 250.
Temporal expectation (See Revelation
– expectation).
Ten horns (Sea horns).
Text(s), 109.
criticism, 4, 47, 55-56.
criticism method, 201-202.
tradition, 198.
variants, 196-198, 201-203, 208.
Theology (-ian), 12,24,59, 177,208.
Thousand, 7, 136, 163,224,350.
Throne(s), 10, 14$, 163,276,303.
Tiberius (emperor), 70,84, 155, 158, 160,
267.
Christ and, 269.
worship of, 269.
Time-frame(s) (See d.scx Revelation, date
o~> 18, 19, 163, 246-255, 319-322.
Timothy, 328.
Tiridates (King of Armenia), 273.
Titan (Sea Sun god).
Titus, 72, 107, 130, 169, 172, 187, 235,
237,248,252,313,350.
celebration o~ 253n.
Christianity and, 227-228,262.
Jerusalem's siege and (SM Jerusalem
– siege of).
Tongue(s) (language), 128, 148,276.
charismatic gift of, 234.
Torture, 78,82,291, 298.
Tradition (See ako: History – Church),
52,60,67,80,98, 101, 105, 113-114>
181, 189, 190, 208.
Irenaeus's influence on, 26,41,46,
64-66.
Revelation and, 27,43-44, 108, 109,
334-335,343-347.
She/slurd of Hermns and, 86K
Trajan (emperor), 44,54,56,57,64,
108, 160, 27 in.
Pliny and, 264, 293n, 297-298.
worship of, 264, 279.
Translation.
Against Het-etis, 47-59,61.
of Revelation, 137-142.
Tribes, 121, 123, 148.
Gentile, 254,276.
Subject Index 409
Jewish, 127- 28, 223-225, 240n.
twelve, 116, 127, 212, 223, 232-233.
Tribulation (S., al.ro: Day of the Lord),
42, 130>139, 48, 221, 234, 240, 348.
Tribute money, 269.
Tiibingen, 26, 27.
Twelve Tribes (See Tribes – twelve).
Tyrant:
Clement of Alexandria and, 68-83.
Nero as (,-lx Nero – character).
Origen and, 68.
UFO> 10-11.
vespasian, 18,44, 66, 72, 73, 107, 119n,
144, 149, 153, 157, 158, 161, 162, 171,
191, 190, 242,244, 252, 253n, 275,
282,300, 309n, 313-316,323,350,351
did not persecute Christianity, 101,
262.
stabilizes Empire, 116, 314-317.
Vesuvius, 69, 188.
Victim(s), 97, 214, 266,290, 292.
Victorious, 43, 65,99-100, 109.
Viper(s) (.See: snakes).
Vision(s), 16, 25,47, 86& 118, 145, 147,
148, 149, 161, 164,206,345, 346, 351.
Vitellius (emperor), 144, 153, 157, 158,
160, 161, 191, 351.
admiration of Nero, 275, 309-310.
VOW(S), 266.
War (Sea Beast – war ofi Rome – civil
war; Jewish War).
Wealth, 72, 187, 319,323.
spiritual, 320-321, 326.
Weep (See also: mourn).
Woman (See also: harlot), 90, 146, 147,
149, 161.
World, 5n, 74, 76, 77, 78, 141, 146, 160,
163, 173, 211, 229, 235,271, 272, 276,
302,311.
beginning of 249,254,268, 302.
end of (See also: Eschatology; Jesus
Christ – coming), 8, 13, 139.
Wound, 79, 277, 301, 302, 310-316.
Wrath, 8, 186, 209, 234,235, 290.
Year of the Four Emperors (See also
Rome – civil war), 144, 160-161, 240.
Zealot, 210, 228,230, 249.
Zeus, 267.
Nero called, 275.
Zion, 171n, 187,242.

From:  https://richardwaynegarganta.com/BeforeJerusalemFell.pdf